A Comparison Montgomery Rosa Park Movement, The Nashville Student Sit-In Movement (1960)’s) and The Freedom Rides (1961) By: Taft T. Pettiford, Final Exam Fall 2012 Instr. Angeline Butler Eth. 123 Outline: This paper will examine the several philosophies and strategies used during the civil rights era by student activists and their impact on the “Civil Rights Movement”. 1. Philosophy 2. Strategy 3. The Student Non Violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) 4. Actions by participants (Demonstrations) 5. Community Support (NAACP, SNLC, CORE) 6. Economic Withdrawal (Boycotts: where and how) 7. Results: a. Constitutional Changes b. The Civil Rights Act 1964, c. The Voting Rights Act 1965 d. Boynton v. State of Virginia, (Appeal of the Rosa Parks Case to the Supreme Court). This paper examines the “Civil Rights” movement, the community and student organizations impact on the movement. While it is common knowledge that the Reverend Martin Luther King died for his efforts to secure “Civil Rights” for Black Folks and the marginalized. The life work and selfless contributions made, to the Civil Rights Movement, by civilian and student activist prior to and after Martins death is, however, not in the common knowledge. This paper, therefore, also attempts to put these “Unsung Heroes” contributions into perspective. The Montgomery Rosa Parks Movement To be clear the Montgomery Bus Boycott was the culmination of several efforts against “Jim Crow” in the South. The Montgomery Improvement Organization’s, organizer, Edgar Daniel Nixon also fought for social justice for Blacks in Montgomery and was a key organizer of the Montgomery Bus Boycott (Encyclopedia of Alabama). Rosa Parks, 1955 refusal to give her “Blacks Only” seat, to a white bus patron, was the impetus that put these efforts into the national and International spotlight. The United States District Court’s, June 19, 1956 decision, in Aurelia Browder, et al. v. W.A. Gayle, et al., held, segregated public transportation is unconstitutional. On November 13, 1956 the United States Supreme Court up held the lower court’s decision effectively ending segregation in public transportation (National Archives). The Nashville Student Sit-In Movement (1960’s) The “Sit In’s” that began February 13, 1960, in Nashville, Tennessee, ushered in a novel and effective way to dismantle Jim Crowism in public accommodations. Student Activist Angelina Butler, observe “Sit In’s” were, “a way for students to put theory into practice” (White Paper). The logic was simple, If Nashville businesses will not let us eat in the same facilities as whites because of race then we will not patronize those businesses. The Nashville student’s utilized the strength of black economic power to bring about change in Nashville (White Paper). Economic withdrawal of black dollars from local economies forced Nashville’s municipal and business community to take black demands for an end to “Jim Crowism” seriously. Whites used arrests, violence, and intimidation in an effort to dissuade the students from sitting in at traditionally white lunch counters. After the April 19, 1956, bombing of Zephaniah Alexander Looby, attorney for the students, family home, Nashville Blacks were thoroughly galvanized and took to the streets en masse. Some five thousand or so blacks marched on Nashville City Hall, demanding the Mayor state his position regarding the violence against Non-violent student activist, blacks in general and the movement supporters. After being nailed down on this issue, by student activist Diane Nash, Mayor Ben West stated he “could not agree, it was morally right to sell merchandise and refuse service” (White Paper). Shortly after the March on City Hall the Municipality, Student Activist and Community organizers hatched out plans to desegregate Nashville’s lunch counters. The City of Nashville became the first City to do so and served as a model for the rest of the countries Cities (White Paper). The Freedom Rides (1961) Capitalizing on the success of the Alabama Bus Boycotts and to test the December 6, 1960, Supreme Court’s decision in Boynton v. Virginia, CORE organizer Tom Gaither suggests a freedom ride (Hartford). On May 16, 1961 student organizers took the first of several freedom rides. Although the first “Freedom Riders” bus was fire bombed in Anniston Alabama that did not deter them in the least. Within hours a cadre of new riders was put together with the resolve to press on. On May 20, 1961 they boarded a bus to Montgomery where they were met with more violence and subsequently arrested. Amongst the people arrested in this group were Jim Zwerg, a white student activist and Paul Brookes, a black student activist. Their crime was sitting together on the bus. For their defiance of Jim Crowism they were brutally beaten and jailed, although segregation on public transportation, as a matter of law was deemed unconstitutional (Nelson). In defense of “Jim Crow” southern white people resorted to acts of violence. Those acts would ultimately contribute to the undoing of Jim Crowism forever. In contrast the non-violent tactics of organizations like SNCC and CORE gave the civil rights movement inertia and mass appeal consistent with the overall strategy of Civil Rights. While on one hand supporters of segregation saw violence as a means to sustain the status quo, on the other hand civil rights activist saw non-violence as the means to change the status quo. Student Nonviolent Coordination Committee (SNCC) The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) came about primarily in response to the jailing, violence and death threats against student activist fighting for social justice. Additionally, training hundreds of student activist/volunteers in nonviolent protest made its creation a necessity. Ella Baker, then executive director of the Southern Christian Leadership Council (SCLC), suggested to Dr. Martin Luther King, then President of (SCLC), and Rev. Ralph D. Abernathy that, the student conference on Nonviolence Resistance to Segregation of April 15th -17th 1960, should be youth centered, they both agreed. Out of that conference SNCC was born. Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) The Congress of Racial Equality (CORE), formerly the Committee of Racial Equality was founded by students of Chicago University in 1942 (Core). Styled as a Pacifist organization and funded by the contributions of its interracial volunteers they joined the fray in the fight for “Civil Rights”. They provided the foot soldiers for the “Sit In’s” of the 1940’s. Through these actions they successfully helped integrate northern Public facilities. When they took their brand of activism to the South to address the Jim Crow culture there they were met with resistance from both the white and black communities. Southern blacks were hesitant to embrace the multiethnic dynamic of CORE’s advocacy. They gained national attention for their “Journey of Reconciliation” when Bayard Rustin and three other members were put on the chain gang in North Carolina. In 1953 James L. Farmer, Jr. was named as national director of CORE (Core). Southern Christian Leadership Committee SCLC SCLC origins stem from the same circumstances that gave rise to the bus boycotts of the South. The existence of racism in American culture was prevalent that winter evening, January 10-11, 1957 as it is today. That day leaders of the Montgomery Improvement Association, and other activist formed the Southern Leadership Conference on Transportation and Nonviolent Integration. On February 14, 1957 they shortened the name to Southern Leadership Conference. During the August of 1957, Montgomery Convention, they adopted their current name Southern Christian Leadership Committee SCLC (SCLC NATIONAL). The Civil Rights Act of 1964 It is not a right until and unless the law says it is. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 codified the “Rights” of the “Negro”, and prohibits discrimination on the basis of race. Through litigation by various other groups those rights are extended to “Minorities” of all sorts. The efforts of SNCC, SCLC, and NAACP as well as the sacrifices of multitudes of civilians gave this country’s “Minorities” a means of redress of grievances that had previously been curtailed. The Voting Rights Act of 1965 This Act codified the “Right” of the “Negro” to vote. Although the 14th Amendment secured for American Citizens the Right to vote in 1869, racist intimidated blacks from voting. Reconstruction Era politics and violence had successfully checked most political gains made by blacks Post-Civil War. The Voters Rights Act was the Federal response to the several states repression of blacks right to vote. During the Civil Rights Era efforts by Ella Baker, Septima Poinsette to register voters, all over the country assured blacks exercised their right to vote as a means to political power and voice in America. The contribution, sacrifices of so many people have gone unnoticed by the same people who benefit from those sacrifices today. Often the value of lifetime of selfless giving is debased out of ignorance. There is no rational explanation for the disregard that is showed by the less informed for the tribute paid with blood sweat and tears of the selfless and innocent for their people. As beneficiary of their legacy we are bound to do them honor through our own sacrifices or some new way of service as we ourselves assume the mantle of citizen. I look forward to witnessing the next wave of “Freedom Fighter” as we pick up the baton of Human Rights Activist. List of Sources 1. Baker, Ella. “Letter From Ella Baker To Martin Luther King, Jr. and Ralph Abernathy”. Stanford Encyclopedia. (1960): PDF file. 2. CORE, “History” n.d. Web. 18 Dec. 2012. < core-online.org> 3. Encyclopedia of Alabama. “1946-1987 Post World War II and the Era of Civil Rights: Civil Rights Movement, E.D. Nixon”. 19 Sept. 2007. 18 Dec. 2012 4. Hartford, Ralph. “The First Ride (May-1960)”. n.d. 18 Dec. 2012. Web crmvet.org. 5. NBC News Special. “White Paper Sit In”. NBC Archive. Web 20 Dec. 1960. 18 Dec. 2012. nbcuniversalarchives. 6. Nelson, Stanley. “The 50th Anniversary of the Freedom Rides” Democracy Now. 4 May 2011. Web. 18 Dec. 2012. democracynow.org 7. Walker, Joel. “Civil Rights: Montgomery Bus Boycott”. National Archives of Atlanta, Resources by State, n.d. Web. 18 Dec. 2012 archive.gov/atlanta.
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