Muhammad From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search This article is about the Islamic prophet. For other people named Muhammad, see Muhammad (name). For other uses, see Muhammad (disambiguation). Islamic prophet Muhammad Common calligraphic representation of Muhammads name Born Muḥammad ibn `Abd Allāh c. 570 CE Mecca, Hejaz, Arabia (present-day Saudi Arabia) Died 8 June 632 CE (aged 62 or 63) Medina, Hejaz, Arabia (present-day Saudi Arabia) Resting place Tomb under the Green Dome of Al-Masjid an-Nabawi at Medina, Hejaz, present-day Saudi Arabia Other names Abu al-Qasim (Kunya) Rasul (Messenger) The Prophet (see Names and titles of Muhammad) Ethnicity Arab Years active 583–609 CE as merchant 609–632 CE as religious leader Successor Abu Bakr (as 1st Caliph) Umar (followed by Abu Bakr) Uthman (followed by Umar) Ali (followed by Uthman) Opponent(s) Abu Jahl Abū Lahab Umm Jamil Religion Islam Spouse(s) Wives Married Khadijah bint Khuwaylid 595–619 Sawda bint Zamʿa 619–632 Aisha bint Abi Bakr 619–632 Hafsa bint Umar 624–632 Zaynab bint Khuzayma 625–627 Hind bint Abi Umayya 625–632 Zaynab bint Jahsh 627–632 Juwayriya bint al-Harith 628–632 Ramlah bint Abi Sufyan 628–632 Rayhana bint Zayd 629–631 Safiyya bint Huyayy 629–632 Maymuna bint al-Harith 630–632 Maria al-Qibtiyya 630–632 Children Sons Qasim `Abd-Allah Ibrahim Daughters Zainab Ruqayyah Umm Kulthoom Fatimah Zahra Parents `Abd Allah ibn `Abd al-Muttalib (father) Aminah (mother) Relatives Ahl al-Bayt (Family of the House) Signature Seal of Muhammad Part of a series on Muhammad Life Life in Mecca Migration to Medina Life in Medina Battles and expeditions Farewell Pilgrimage Milestones and records Career First revelation Migration to Medina Life in Medina Conquest of Mecca Farewell Pilgrimage Hadith Miracles Quran Isra and Miraj Splitting of the moon Miracles of Muhammad Views Jews Christians Slavery Succession Farewell Sermon Hadith (Pen and Paper) Saqifah Ahl al-Bayt Sahaba History Praise Durood Naat Mawlid Perspectives Islamic Islamic theories of Muhammad in the Bible Jewish Medieval Christian Historicity Criticism Related Mosque of the prophet Relics Islam portal v t e Muḥammad (Arabic: محمد; c. 570 – 8 June 632[1]), full name Abū al-Qāsim Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd Allāh ibn ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib ibn Hāshim (ابو القاسم محمد ابن عبد الله ابن عبد المطلب ابن هاشم), from Mecca, unified Arabia into a single religious polity under Islam. Believed by Muslims and Baháís to be a messenger and prophet of God, Muhammad is almost universally[n 1] considered by Muslims as the last prophet sent by God to mankind.[2][n 2] While non-Muslims generally regard Muhammad as the founder of Islam,[3] Muslims consider him to have restored the unaltered original monotheistic faith of Adam, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and other prophets in Islam.[4][5][6][7] Muslims discuss Muhammad and other prophets of God with reverence, adding the phrase peace be upon them whenever their names are mentioned.[8] Born approximately in 570 CE in the Arabian city of Mecca,[9][10] Muhammad was orphaned at an early age; he was raised under the care of his paternal uncle Abu Talib. After his childhood Muhammad primarily worked as a merchant.[11] Occasionally he would retreat to a cave in the mountains for several nights of seclusion and prayer; later, at age 40, he reported at this spot,[9][12] that he was visited by Gabriel and received his first revelation from God. Three years after this event Muhammad started preaching these revelations publicly, proclaiming that God is One, that complete surrender (lit. islām) to Him is the only way (dīn)[n 3] acceptable to God, and that he was a prophet and messenger of God, similar to other Islamic prophets.[13][14][15] Muhammad gained few followers early on, and met hostility from some Meccan tribes. To escape persecution, Muhammad sent some of his followers to Abyssinia before he and his followers in Mecca migrated to Medina (then known as Yathrib) in the year 622. This event, the Hijra, marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar, also known as the Hijri Calendar. In Medina, Muhammad united the tribes under the Constitution of Medina. After eight years of fighting with the Meccan tribes, Muhammad gathered an army of 10,000 Muslim converts and marched on the city of Mecca. The attack went largely uncontested and Muhammad took over the city with little bloodshed. He destroyed the pagan idols in the city[16] and sent his followers out to destroy all remaining pagan temples in Eastern Arabia.[17][18] In 632, a few months after returning to Medina from The Farewell Pilgrimage, Muhammad fell ill and died. Before his death, most of the Arabian Peninsula had converted to Islam, and he had united Arabia into a single Muslim religious polity.[19][20] The revelations (each known as Ayah, lit. Sign [of God]), which Muhammad reported receiving until his death, form the verses of the Quran, regarded by Muslims as the Word of God and around which the religion is based. Besides the Quran, Muhammads teachings and practices (sunnah), found in the Hadith and sira literature, are also upheld by Muslims and used as sources of Islamic law. While conceptions of Muhammad in medieval Christendom and other premodern contexts were largely negative, appraisals in modern history have been far more favorable.[15][21] Contents 1 Names and appellations in the Quran 2 Sources for Muhammads life 2.1 Quran 2.2 Early biographies 2.3 Hadith 3 Pre-Islamic Arabia 4 Life 4.1 In Mecca 4.1.1 Childhood and early life 4.2 Beginnings of the Quran 4.3 Opposition 4.4 Isra and Miraj 4.5 Last years in Mecca before Hijra 4.6 Hijra 4.6.1 Migration to Medina 4.6.2 Establishment of a new polity 4.6.3 Beginning of armed conflict 4.6.4 Conflict with Mecca 4.6.5 Siege of Medina 4.6.6 Truce of Hudaybiyyah 4.7 Final years 4.7.1 Conquest of Mecca 4.7.2 Conquest of Arabia 4.7.3 Farewell pilgrimage 4.7.4 Death and tomb 4.8 After Muhammad 5 Early reforms under Islam 6 Appearance 7 Household 8 Legacy 8.1 Muslim views 8.1.1 Islamic depictions 8.2 Non-Muslim views 8.2.1 Historical Christian views 8.2.2 Other religious views 8.3 Criticism 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 12 Bibliography 12.1 Encyclopedias 13 Further reading 14 External links 14.1 Other biographies Names and appellations in the Quran The name Muhammad written in Thuluth, a script variety of Islamic calligraphy. The name Muhammad (/mʊˈhæməd, -ˈhɑːməd/)[22] means praiseworthy and appears four times in the Quran.[23] The Quran addresses Muhammad in the second person by his various appellations; prophet, messenger, servant of God (abd), announcer (bashir)[Quran 2:119], witness (shahid),[Quran 33:45] bearer of good tidings (mubashshir), warner (nathir),[Quran 11:2] reminder (mudhakkir),[Quran 88:21] one who calls [unto God] (dā‘ī),[Quran 12:108] light personified (noor)[Quran 05:15], and the light-giving lamp (siraj munir)[Quran 73:1]. Muhammad is sometimes addressed by designations deriving from his state at the time of the address: thus he is referred to as the enwrapped (al-muzzammil) in Quran 73:1 and the shrouded (al-muddaththir) in Quran 74:1.[24] In Sura Al-Ahzab 33:40 God singles out Muhammad as the Seal of the Prophets, or the last of the prophets.[25] The Quran also refers to Muhammad as Aḥmad more praiseworthy (Arabic: أحمد, Sura As-Saff 61:6).[citation needed] Sources for Muhammads life Main articles: Historiography of early Islam and Historicity of Muhammad Quran A folio from an early Quran, written in Kufic script (Abbasid period, 8th–9th century) The Quran is the central religious text of Islam. Muslims believe that it represents the words of God revealed to Muhammad through the archangel Gabriel.[26][27][28] Although it mentions Muhammad directly only four times,[29][Quran 3:144][Quran 33:40][Quran 47:2][Quran 48:29] there are verses which can be interpreted as allusions to Muhammads life.[15][n 4] The Quran, however, provides minimal assistance for Muhammads chronological biography; many of the utterances recorded in the Quran lack historical context.[30][31] Early biographies Main article: Sirah Rasul Allah Next in importance are the historic works by writers of the 2nd and 3rd centuries of the Muslim era (AH – 8th and 9th century CE).[32] These include the traditional Muslim biographies of Muhammad (the sira literature), which provide additional information about Muhammads life.[33] The earliest surviving written sira (biographies of Muhammad and quotes attributed to him) is Ibn Ishaqs Life of Gods Messenger written c. 767 CE (150 AH). Although the work was lost, this sira was used verbatim at great length by Ibn Hisham and Al-Tabari.[34][35] Another early history source is the history of Muhammads campaigns by al-Waqidi (death 207 of Muslim era), and the work of his secretary Ibn Sad al-Baghdadi (death 230 of Muslim era).[32] Many scholars accept the accuracy of the earliest biographies, though their accuracy is unascertainable.[34] Recent studies have led scholars to distinguish between the traditions touching legal matters and the purely historical ones. In the former sphere, traditions could have been subject to invention while in the latter sphere, aside from exceptional cases, the material may have been only subject to tendential shaping.[36] Hadith Main article: Hadith In addition, the hadith collections are accounts of the verbal and physical teachings and traditions of Muhammad that date from several generations after his death.[37] Western academics view the hadith collections with caution as accurate historical sources.[37] Scholars such as Madelung do not reject the narrations which have been compiled in later periods, but judge them in the context of history and on the basis of their compatibility with the events and figures.[38] Pre-Islamic Arabia Main tribes and settlements of Arabia in Muhammads lifetime Main articles: Pre-Islamic Arabia, Jahiliyyah and Arabian mythology The Arabian Peninsula was largely arid and volcanic, agriculture was difficult except near oases or springs. The landscape was dotted with towns and cities; two of the most prominent being Mecca and Medina. Medina was a large flourishing agricultural settlement, while Mecca was an important financial center for many surrounding tribes.[39] Communal life was essential for survival in the desert conditions, supporting indigenous tribes against the harsh environment and lifestyle. Tribal grouping was encouraged by the need to act as a unit, this unity being based on the bond of kinship by blood.[40] Indigenous Arabs were either nomadic or sedentary, the former constantly travelling from one place to another seeking water and pasture for their flocks, while the latter settled and focused on trade and agriculture. Nomadic survival was also dependent on raiding caravans or oases, the nomads not viewing this as a crime.[41][42] Politically Arabia at the time was divided between two tribal confederations, the Banu Qais, loosely allied with Byzantium and who were originally powerful in Northern and Western Arabia, and the Banu Kalb, who had originally come from Yemen, and were loosely allied with Sassanid Persia. These rivalries were suppressed by Islam but continued to influence events in the Middle East and North Africa in post-Islamic times.[citation needed] In pre-Islamic Arabia, gods or goddesses were viewed as protectors of individual tribes, their spirits being associated with sacred trees, stones, springs and wells. As well as being the site of an annual pilgrimage, the Kaaba shrine in Mecca housed 360 idol statues of tribal patron deities. Three goddesses were associated with Allah as his daughters: Allāt, Manāt and al-‘Uzzá. Monotheistic communities existed in Arabia, including Christians and Jews.[43] Hanifs – native pre-Islamic Arabs who professed a rigid monotheism[44] – are also sometimes listed alongside Jews and Christians in pre-Islamic Arabia, although their historicity is disputed among scholars.[45][46] According to Muslim tradition, Muhammad himself was a Hanif and one of the descendants of Ishmael, son of Abraham.[47] Life In Mecca Timeline of Muhammad in Mecca Important dates and locations in the life of Muhammad c. 569 Death of his father, Abdullah c. 570 Possible date of birth: April 19 570 dC, 12 Rabi al Awal: in Mecca Saudi Arabia 576 Death of his mother, Aminah c. 583 his grand father transfers him to Syria c. 595 Meets and marries Khadijah 597 Birth of Zainab, his first daughter, followed by: Ruqayyah, Umm Khultoom, and Fatima Zahra 610 Quranic revelation begins in the Cave of Hira on the Jabaal an Nur the Mountain of Light near Mecca 610 Prophethood begins at 40 years old: Angel Jebreel (Gabriel) said to appear to him on the mountain and call him: The Prophet of Allah 610 Begins in secret to gather followers in Mecca c. 613 Begins spreading message of Islam publicly to all Meccans c. 614 Heavy persecution of Muslims begins c. 615 Emigration of a group of Muslims to Ethiopia 616 Banu Hashim clan boycott begins 619 The year of sorrows: Khadija (his wife) and Abu Talib (his uncle) die 619 Banu Hashim clan boycott ends c. 620 Isra and Miraj (reported ascension to heaven to meet God) 622 Hijra, emigration to Medina (called Yathrib) 624 Battle of Badr 625 Battle of Uhud 627 Battle of the Trench (also known as the siege of Medina) 628 The Meccan tribe of Quraysh and the Muslim community in Medina signed a 10 year truce called the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah 629 Conquest of Mecca 632 Farewell pilgrimage and death, in what is now Saudi Arabia This box: view talk edit Main article: Muhammad in Mecca Muhammad was born in Mecca and lived there for roughly the first 52 years of his life (c. 570–622). This period is generally divided into two phases, before and after declaring his prophetic visions.[citation needed] Childhood and early life See also: Mawlid and Family tree of Muhammad Muhammad was born about the year 570[9] and his birthday is believed to be in the month of Rabi al-awwal.[48] He belonged to the Banu Hashim clan, one of Meccas prominent families, although it appears less prosperous during Muhammads early lifetime.[15][49] The Banu Hashim clan was part of the Quraysh tribe. Tradition places the year of Muhammads birth as corresponding with the Year of the Elephant, which is named after the failed destruction of Mecca that year by the Aksumite king Abraha who supplemented his army with elephants. An outbreak of smallpox among the Aksumites may explain the failure of the invading army.[50] 20th century scholarship has suggested alternative dates for this event, such as 568 or 569.[51] Miniature from Rashid-al-Din Hamadanis Jami al-Tawarikh, c. 1315, illustrating the story of Muhammads role in re-setting the Black Stone in 605. (Ilkhanate period)[52] His father, Abdullah, died almost six months before Muhammad was born.[53] According to Islamic tradition, soon after Muhammads birth he was sent to live with a Bedouin family in the desert, as desert life was considered healthier for infants.[54] Muhammad stayed with his foster-mother, Halimah bint Abi Dhuayb, and her husband until he was two years old.[11] Some western scholars of Islam have rejected the historicity of this tradition.[54] At the age of six, Muhammad lost his biological mother Amina to illness and he became orphaned.[11][55] For the next two years, he was under the guardianship of his paternal grandfather Abd al-Muttalib, of the Banu Hashim clan, but when Muhammad was eight, his grandfather also died. He then came under the care of his uncle Abu Talib, the new leader of Banu Hashim.[11][51] According to Islamic historian William Montgomery Watt there was a general disregard by guardians in taking care of weaker members of the tribes in Mecca during the 6th century, Muhammads guardians saw that he did not starve to death, but it was hard for them to do more for him, especially as the fortunes of the clan of Hashim seem to have been declining at that time.[56] While still in his teens, Muhammad accompanied his uncle on trading journeys to Syria gaining experience in commercial trade, the only career open to Muhammad as an orphan.[11][56] Islamic tradition states that when Muhammad was either nine or twelve while accompanying the Meccans caravan to Syria, he met a Christian monk or hermit named Bahira who is said to have foreseen Muhammads career as a prophet of God.[57] Little is known of Muhammad during his later youth, and from the fragmentary information that is available, it is difficult to separate history from legend.[11][56] It is known that he became a merchant and was involved in trade between the Indian ocean and the Mediterranean Sea.[58] Due to his upright character he acquired the nickname al-Amin (Arabic: الامين), meaning faithful, trustworthy and al-Sadiq meaning truthful[59] and was sought out as an impartial arbitrator.[10][15][60] His reputation attracted a proposal in 595 from Khadijah, a 40-year-old widow. Muhammad consented to the marriage, which by all accounts was a happy one.[11][58] Several years later, according to a narration collected by historian Ibn Ishaq, Muhammad was involved with a well-known story about setting the Black Stone in place in the wall of the Kaaba in 605 CE. The Black Stone, a sacred object, had been removed to facilitate renovations to the Kaaba. The leaders of Mecca could not agree on which clan should have the honour of setting the Black Stone back in its place. They agreed to wait for the next man to come through the gate and ask him to choose. That man was the 35-year-old Muhammad, five years before his first revelation. He asked for a cloth and put the Black Stone in its centre. The clan leaders held the corners of the cloth and together carried the Black Stone to the right spot, then Muhammad set the stone in place, satisfying the honour of all.[61] Beginnings of the Quran See also: Muhammads first revelation, History of the Quran and Wahy The cave Hira in the mountain Jabal al-Nour where, according to Muslim belief, Muhammad received his first revelation. Muhammad adopted the practice of praying alone for several weeks every year in a cave on Mount Hira near Mecca.[62][63] Islamic tradition holds that during one of his visits to Mount Hira, the angel Gabriel appeared to him in the year 610 and commanded Muhammad to recite verses which would later be included in the Quran.[64] There is a consensus that the first words of the Quran to be revealed were the beginning of Surah 96:1.[65] Upon receiving his first revelations, he was deeply distressed. After returning home, Muhammad was consoled and reassured by Khadijah and her Christian cousin, Waraqah ibn Nawfal.[66] He also feared that others would dismiss his claims as being possessed.[42] Shia tradition maintains that Muhammad was neither surprised nor frightened at the appearance of Gabriel but rather Muhammad welcomed him as if he was expecting.[67] The initial revelation was followed by a pause of three years (a period known as fatra) during which Muhammad felt depressed and further gave himself to prayers and spiritual practices.[65] When the revelations resumed he was reassured and commanded to begin preaching: Thy Guardian-Lord hath not forsaken thee, nor is He displeased.[68][69][70] A depiction of Muhammad receiving his first revelation from the angel Gabriel. From the manuscript Jami al-tawarikh by Rashid-al-Din Hamadani, 1307, Ilkhanate period. Sahih Bukhari narrates Muhammad describing his revelations as sometimes it is (revealed) like the ringing of a bell. Aisha reported, I saw the Prophet being inspired Divinely on a very cold day and noticed the sweat dropping from his forehead (as the Inspiration was over).[71] According to Welch these descriptions may be considered genuine, since they are unlikely to have been forged by later Muslims.[15] Muhammad was confident that he could distinguish his own thoughts from these messages.[72] According to the Quran, one of the main roles of Muhammad is to warn the unbelievers of their eschatological punishment (Quran 38:70, Quran 6:19). Occasionally the Quran did not explicitly refer to Judgment day but provided examples from the history of extinct communities and warns Muhammads contemporaries of similar calamities (Quran 41:13–16).[24] Muhammad did not only warn those who rejected Gods revelation, but also dispensed good news for those who abandoned evil, listening to the divine words and serving God.[73] Muhammads mission also involves preaching monotheism: The Quran commands Muhammad to proclaim and praise the name of his Lord and instructs him not to worship idols or associate other deities with God.[24][74] The key themes of the early Quranic verses included the responsibility of man towards his creator; the resurrection of the dead, Gods final judgment followed by vivid descriptions of the tortures in Hell and pleasures in Paradise; and the signs of God in all aspects of life. Religious duties required of the believers at this time were few: belief in God, asking for forgiveness of sins, offering frequent prayers, assisting others particularly those in need, rejecting cheating and the love of wealth (considered to be significant in the commercial life of Mecca), being chaste and not to kill newborn girls.[15] Opposition See also: Persecution of Muslims by the Meccans and Migration to Abyssinia According to Muslim tradition, Muhammads wife Khadija was the first to believe he was a prophet.[75] She was followed by Muhammads ten-year-old cousin Ali ibn Abi Talib, close friend Abu Bakr, and adopted son Zaid.[12][75] Around 613, Muhammad began to preach to the public (Quran 26:214).[76] Most Meccans ignored him and mocked him,[74] though a few became his followers. There were three main groups of early converts to Islam: younger brothers and sons of great merchants; people who had fallen out of the first rank in their tribe or failed to attain it; and the weak, mostly unprotected foreigners.[77] The last ayah from the sura An-Najm in the Quran: So prostrate to Allah and worship [Him]. Muhammads message of monotheism (one God) challenged the traditional order. According to Ibn Sad, the opposition in Mecca started when Muhammad delivered verses that condemned idol worship and the Meccan forefathers who engaged in polytheism.[74][78] However, the Quranic exegesis maintains that it began as Muhammad started public preaching.[79] As the number of followers increased, he became a threat to the local tribes and rulers of the city, whose wealth rested upon the Kaaba, the focal point of Meccan religious life that Muhammad threatened to overthrow. Muhammads denunciation of the Meccan traditional religion was especially offensive to his own tribe, the Quraysh, as they were the guardians of the Kaaba.[77] The powerful merchants attempted to convince Muhammad to abandon his preaching by offering him admission into the inner circle of merchants, and establishing his position therein by an advantageous marriage. However, he refused both.[77] Tradition records at great length the persecution and ill-treatment towards Muhammad and his followers.[15][74] Sumayyah bint Khabbab, a slave of a prominent Meccan leader Abu Jahl, is famous as the first martyr of Islam; killed with a spear by her master when she refused to give up her faith. Bilal, another Muslim slave, was tortured by Umayyah ibn Khalaf who used to place a heavy rock on his chest to force his conversion.[80][81] Apart from insults, Muhammad was protected from physical harm as he belonged to the Banu Hashim clan.[74][82][83] In 615, some of Muhammads followers emigrated to the Ethiopian Aksumite Empire and founded a small colony under the protection of the Christian Ethiopian emperor Aṣḥama ibn Abjar.[15][74] Ibn Saad mentions two separate migrations. According to him, most of the Muslims returned to Mecca prior to Hijra, while there was a second group that rejoined them in Medina. Ibn Hisham and Tabari, however, only talk about one migration to Ethiopia. These accounts agree that persecution in Mecca played a major role in Muḥammads decision to suggest that a number of his followers seek refuge among the Christians in Abyssinia. According to the famous letter of ʿUrwa preserved in al-Tabari, the majority of Muslims returned to their native town after Islam had become strengthened when high rank people in Mecca, such as Umar and Hamzah converted. However, there is a complete different story on the reason why the Muslims returned from Ethiopia to Mecca. According to this account -that has been mentioned by Tabari, Ibn Saad and Al-Waqidi, but not by Ibn Hisham and perhaps not by Ibn Ishaq-[84] Muhammad, desperately hoping for an accommodation with his tribe, pronounced a verse acknowledging the existence of three Meccan goddesses considered to be the daughters of Allah. Muhammad retracted the verses the next day at the behest of Gabriel, claiming that the verses were whispered by the devil himself. Instead, a ridicule of these gods was offered.[85][n 5][n 6] This episode known as The Story of the Cranes (translation: قصة الغرانيق, transliteration: Qissat al Gharaneeq) is also known as Satanic Verses. According to the story this led to a general reconciliation between Muḥammad and the Meccans, and the Muslims who had migrated to Abyssinia began to return home. By the time they arrived, however, the archangel Gabriel had informed Muḥammad that the two g̲h̲arānīḳ verses were not part of the revelation, but had been inserted by Satan. Some scholars argued against the historic authenticity of these verses on various grounds.[86][87][n 7] Later the incident received widespread acceptance, however strong objections to it were raised starting from the 10th century, on theological grounds. The objections continued on this point until rejection of these verses eventually became the only acceptable orthodox Muslim position.[88] In 617, the leaders of Makhzum and Banu Abd-Shams, two important Quraysh clans, declared a public boycott against Banu Hashim, their commercial rival, to pressure it into withdrawing its protection of Muhammad. The boycott lasted three years but eventually collapsed as it failed in its objective.[89][90] During this, Muhammad was only able to preach during the holy pilgrimage months in which all hostilities between Arabs was suspended.[91] Isra and Miraj Main article: Isra and Miraj The Al-Aqsa Mosque, part of the al-Haram ash-Sharif complex in Jerusalem, is believed to be the farthest mosque to which Muhammad travelled in his night journey. The al-Haram ash-Sharif is the third holiest place on earth for Muslims.[92] Islamic tradition states that in 620, Muhammad experienced the Isra and Miraj, a miraculous journey said to have occurred with the angel Gabriel in one night. In the beginning of the journey, the Isra, he is said to have travelled from Mecca on a winged steed (Buraq) to the farthest mosque (in Arabic: masjid al-aqsa), which Muslims usually identify with the Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem. Later, during the Miraj, Muhammad is said to have toured heaven and hell, and spoke with earlier prophets, such as Abraham, Moses, and Jesus.[91][93] Ibn Ishaq, author of the first biography of Muhammad, presents the event as a spiritual experience; later historians, like Al-Tabari and Ibn Kathir, present it as a physical journey.[93] Quranic inscriptions on the Dome of the Rock, adjacent to the Al-Aqsa Mosque in the al-Haram ash-Sharif. The Dome of the Rock marks the spot Muhammad is believed to have ascended to heaven.[94] Some western scholars[who?] hold that the Isra and Miraj identified the journey as traveling through the heavens from the sacred enclosure at Mecca to the celestial al-Baytu l-Maʿmur (heavenly prototype of the Kaaba); later traditions indicate Muhammads journey as having been from Mecca to Jerusalem.[95][page needed] Last years in Mecca before Hijra Muhammads wife Khadijah and uncle Abu Talib both died in 619, the year thus being known as the year of sorrow. With the death of Abu Talib, leadership of the Banu Hashim clan passed to Abu Lahab, a tenacious enemy of Muhammad. Soon afterwards, Abu Lahab withdrew the clans protection over Muhammad. This placed Muhammad in danger; the withdrawal of clan protection implied that blood revenge for his killing would not be exacted. Muhammad then visited Taif, another important city in Arabia, and tried to find a protector, but his effort failed and further brought him into physical danger.[15][90][91] Muhammad was forced to return to Mecca. A Meccan man named Mutim ibn Adi (and the protection of the tribe of Banu Nawfal) made it possible for him to safely re-enter his native city.[15][90][91] Many people were visiting Mecca on business or as pilgrims to the Kaaba. Muhammad took this opportunity to look for a new home for himself and his followers. After several unsuccessful negotiations, he found hope with some men from Yathrib (later called Medina).[15] The Arab population of Yathrib were familiar with monotheism and were prepared for the appearance of a prophet because a Jewish community existed there.[15][96] They also hoped, by the means of Muhammad and the new faith, to gain supremacy over Mecca; the Yathrib were jealous of its importance as the place of pilgrimage.[96] Converts to Islam came from nearly all Arab tribes in Medina; by June of the subsequent year, seventy-five Muslims came to Mecca for pilgrimage and to meet Muhammad. Meeting him secretly by night, the group made what is known as the Second Pledge of al-`Aqaba,[96] or, in Orientalists view, the Pledge of War.[97] Following the pledges at Aqabah, Muhammad encouraged his followers to emigrate to Yathrib. As with the migration to Abyssinia, the Quraysh attempted to stop the emigration. However, almost all Muslims managed to leave.[98] Hijra Timeline of Muhammad in Medina c. 622 Emigrates to Medina (Hijra) 623 Caravan Raids begin 623 Al Kudr Invasion 624 Battle of Badr: Muslims defeat Meccans 624 Battle of Sawiq, Abu Sufyan escapes capture 624 Expulsion of Banu Qaynuqa 624 Invasion of Thi Amr, Muhammad raids Ghatafan tribes 624 Assassination of Khaled b. Sufyan & Abu Rafi 625 Battle of Uhud: Meccans defeat Muslims 625 Tragedy of Bir Maona and Al Raji 625 Invasion of Hamra al-Asad, successfully terrifies enemy to cause retreat 625 Banu Nadir expelled after Invasion 625 Invasion of Nejd, Badr and Dumatul Jandal 627 Battle of the Trench 627 Invasion of Banu Qurayza, successful siege 628 Treaty of Hudaybiyyah, gains access to Kaaba 628 Conquest of the Khaybar oasis 629 First hajj pilgrimage 629 Attack on Byzantine Empire fails: Battle of Mutah 630 Bloodless conquest of Mecca 630 Battle of Hunayn 630 Siege of Taif 631 Rules most of the Arabian peninsula 632 Attacks the Ghassanids: Tabuk 632 Farewell hajj pilgrimage 632 Death, on June 8 in Medina This box: view talk edit Main article: Hijra (Islam) The Hijra is the migration of Muhammad and his followers from Mecca to Medina in 622 CE. In June 622, warned of a plot to assassinate him, Muhammad secretly slipped out of Mecca and moved his followers to Medina,[96] 320 kilometres (200 miles) north of Mecca. The Hijra is celebrated annually on the first day of the Muslim year.[citation needed] Migration to Medina Main article: Muhammad in Medina A delegation, consisting of the representatives of the twelve important clans of Medina, to serve as chief arbitrator for the entire community; due to his status as a neutral outsider.[99][100] There was fighting in Yathrib: primarily the dispute involved its Arab and Jewish inhabitants, and was estimated to have lasted for around a hundred years before 620.[99] The recurring slaughters and disagreements over the resulting claims, especially after the Battle of Buath in which all clans were involved, made it obvious to them that the tribal concept of blood-feud and an eye for an eye were no longer workable unless there was one man with authority to adjudicate in disputed cases.[99] The delegation from Medina pledged themselves and their fellow-citizens to accept Muhammad into their community and physically protect him as one of themselves.[15] Muhammad instructed his followers to emigrate to Medina, until nearly all his followers left Mecca. Being alarmed at the departure, according to tradition, the Meccans plotted to assassinate Muhammad. With the help of Ali, Muhammad fooled the Meccans watching him, and secretly slipped away from the town with Abu Bakr.[96][101] By 622, Muhammad emigrated to Medina, a large agricultural oasis. Those who migrated from Mecca along with Muhammad became known as muhajirun (emigrants).[15] Establishment of a new polity Main article: Constitution of Medina Among the first things Muhammad did to ease the longstanding grievances among the tribes of Medina was to draft a document known as the Constitution of Medina, establishing a kind of alliance or federation among the eight Medinan tribes and Muslim emigrants from Mecca; this specified rights and duties of all citizens, and the relationship of the different communities in Medina (including the Muslim community to other communities, specifically the Jews and other Peoples of the Book).[99][100] The community defined in the Constitution of Medina, Ummah, had a religious outlook, also shaped by practical considerations and substantially preserved the legal forms of the old Arab tribes.[15] It effectively established the first Islamic state.[citation needed] Several ordinances were proclaimed to win over the numerous and wealthy Jewish population. These were soon rescinded as the Jews insisted on preserving the entire Mosaic law, and did not recognize him as a prophet because he was not of the race of David.[96] The first group of converts to Islam in Medina were the clans without great leaders; these clans had been subjugated by hostile leaders from outside.[102] This was followed by the general acceptance of Islam by the pagan population of Medina, with some exceptions. According to Ibn Ishaq, this was influenced by the conversion of Sad ibn Muadh (a prominent Medinan leader) to Islam.[103] Medinans who converted to Islam and helped the Muslim emigrants find shelter became known as the ansar (supporters).[15] Then Muhammad instituted brotherhood between the emigrants and the supporters and he chose Ali as his own brother.[104] God! There is no god but He, the Living, the Everlasting. Slumber seizes Him not, neither sleep; to Him belongs all that is in the heavens and the earth. Who is there that shall intercede with Him save by His leave? He knows what lies before them and what is after them, and they comprehend not anything of His knowledge save such as He wills. His Throne comprises the heavens and earth; the preserving of them oppresses Him not; He is the All-high, the All-glorious. the Throne Verse (2:255), revealed in Medina.[105] Beginning of armed conflict Main articles: List of expeditions of Muhammad and Battle of Badr v t e List of battles of Muhammad Ghazwah (expeditions where he took part) Raids Abwa Buwat Safwan Dul 1st Badr Kudr Sawiq Qaynuqa Thi Bahran Uhud Asad Nadir 2nd Nejd 2nd Badr Jandal Trench Qurayza Lahyan Mustaliq Treaty Khaybar Fadak Qura Dhat Baqra Mecca Hunayn Autas Taif Tabouk Sariyyah (expeditions which he ordered) Nakhla 1st Nejd Qatan Unais Raji Damri Bir Atik Maslamah Ukasha 1st Thala 2nd Thala Qarad Jumum Is 3rd Thala Hisma Zaid Auf 1st Ali Wadi Kurz Rawaha Umar Bakr Bashir Mayfah Ghalib Yemen Sulami Kadid Layth Shuja Kab Mutah 1st Amr Ubaidah Hadrad Edam Khadirah Khalid 2nd Amr Sad Jadh Tufail 1st Autas 2nd Autas Tamim Khatham Dahhak Jeddah 3rd Ali Udhrah 3rd Khalid 4th Khalid Sufyan Jurash Najran Mudhij Hamdan Dhul Army of Usama (Final Expedition) Following the emigration, the people of Mecca seized property of Muslim emigrants to Mecca.[106] Economically uprooted with no available profession, the Muslim migrants turned to raiding Meccan caravans, initiating armed conflict with Mecca.[107][108][109] Muhammad delivered Quranic verses permitting Muslims to fight the Meccans (see sura Al-Hajj, Quran 22:39–40).[110] These attacks allowed the migrants to acquire wealth, power and prestige while working towards the ultimate goal of conquering Mecca.[111][112] According to the traditional account, on 11 February 624, while praying in the Masjid al-Qiblatain in Medina, Muhammad received revelations from God that he should be facing Mecca rather than Jerusalem during prayer. Muhammad adjusted to the new direction, and his companions praying with him followed his lead, beginning the tradition of facing Mecca during prayer.[113] According to Watt, the change may have been less sudden and definite than the story suggests – the related Quranic verses (2:136–2:147) appear to have been revealed at different times – and correlates with changes in Muhammads political support base, symbolizing his turning away from Jews and adopting a more Arabian outlook.[113] In March 624, Muhammad led some three hundred warriors in a raid on a Meccan merchant caravan. The Muslims set an ambush for the caravan at Badr.[114] Aware of the plan, the Meccan caravan eluded the Muslims.[109] A force from Mecca was sent to protect the caravan, and continued en route to confront the Muslims upon receiving word that the caravan was safe. The Battle of Badr commenced.[115] Though outnumbered more than three to one, the Muslims won the battle, killing at least forty-five Meccans with fourteen Muslims dead. They also succeeded in killing many Meccan leaders, including Abu Jahl.[116] Seventy prisoners had been acquired, many of whom were ransomed in return for wealth or freed.[107][109][117][118] Muhammad and his followers saw the victory as confirmation of their faith[15] and Muhammad ascribed the victory as assisted from an invisible host of angels.[119] The Quranic verses of this period,[which?] unlike the Meccan verses, dealt with practical problems of government[citation needed] and issues like the distribution of spoils.[120][121] The victory strengthened Muhammads position in Medina and dispelled earlier doubts among his followers.[122] As a result the opposition to him became less vocal. Pagans who had not yet converted were very bitter about the advance of Islam. Two pagans, Asma bint Marwan of the Aws Manat tribe and Abu Afak of the Amr b. Awf tribe, had composed verses taunting and insulting the Muslims.[123] They were killed by people belonging to their own or related clans, and Muhammad did not disapprove the killings.[123] Most members of those tribes converted to Islam and there was hardly any opposition from the pagans left.[124] Muhammad expelled from Medina the Banu Qaynuqa, one of three main Jewish tribes,[15] but some historians contend that the expulsion happened after Muhammads death.[125] According to al-Waqidi, after Abd-Allah ibn Ubaiy spoke for them, Muhammad refrained from executing them and commanded that they be exiled from Medina.[126] Following the Battle of Badr, Muhammad also made mutual-aid alliances with a number of Bedouin tribes to protect his community from attacks from the northern part of Hejaz.[15]
Posted on: Thu, 15 Jan 2015 21:46:08 +0000
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