Paganism is a broad group of indigenous and historical polytheistic religious traditions—primarily those of cultures known to the classical world. In a wider sense, paganism has also been understood to include any non-Abrahamic, folk, or ethnic religion. Contemporary or modern paganism, also known as neopaganism, is a group of new religious movements influenced by, or claiming to be derived from, the various historical pagan beliefs of pre-modern Europe.[1][2] Contemporary pagan religious movements are diverse, sharing no single set of beliefs, deities, creed, ritual practices, or texts; nor do any claim to be absolutely authoritative. However, there is a great deal of overlap amongst pagan movements and there are a number of beliefs commonly shared by many pagans, including pluralism, pantheism, polytheism, and a general belief that divinity is found in mind and nature.[3] Contents [hide] 1 Nomenclature and etymology 1.1 Hellene 1.2 Pagan 1.3 Heathen 2 Definition 3 Perception 4 History 4.1 Bronze Age to Early Iron Age 4.2 Classical antiquity 4.2.1 Late Antiquity 4.2.2 During Muhammads era in Arabia 4.3 Early Modern period 4.4 Romanticism 5 Survivals in folklore 6 Contemporary paganism 6.1 Paganism in Arabia 7 Christianity as pagan 8 Ethnic religions of pre-Christian Europe 9 See also 10 References 11 External links Nomenclature and etymology[edit] Reconstruction of the Parthenon, on the Acropolis of Athens, Greece. Hellene[edit] For more details on this topic, see Hellene comes to mean pagan. In the Latin-speaking West of the newly Christianizing Roman Empire, Greek became associated with the traditional polytheistic beliefs of Ancient Greece and regarded as a foreign language (lingua peregrina).[4] By the latter half of the 4th century in the Greek-speaking East, pagans were—paradoxically—most commonly called Hellenes (Ἕλλην, lit. Greeks). The word almost entirely ceased being used in a cultural sense.[5][6] It retained that meaning for roughly the first millennium of Christianity. This was influenced by Christianitys early membership, who were Jewish. Jews of the time distinguished themselves from foreigners according to religious rather than ethnocultural standards and early Jewish Christians would have done the same. As Hellenic culture was the dominant pagan culture in the Roman east, they called pagans Greek (Hellene). Christianity inherited Jewish terminology for non-Jews and adapted it to refer to non-Christians they were in contact with. This usage is recorded in the New Testament. In the Pauline epistles, Hellene almost always juxtaposed to Hebrew in disregard of actual ethnicities.[6] Usage of Hellene as a religious term was initially part of an exclusively Christians nomenclature, but some pagans began defiantly calling themselves Hellenes. Other pagans even preferred the narrowed meaning of the word—from a broad cultural sphere to a more specific religious grouping. However, there were many Christians and pagans alike who strongly objected to the evolution of the terminology. The influential Archbishop of Constantinople Gregory of Nazianzus, for example, took offence to imperial efforts to suppress Hellenic culture (especially concerning spoken and written Greek) and openly criticized the emperor.[5] The growing religious stigmatization of Hellenism had a chilling effect on Hellenic culture by the late 4th century.[5] By late antiquity, however, it was possible to speak Greek as a primary language while not conceiving of oneself a Hellene.[7] The long-established use of Greek in and around the eastern Roman Empire a lingua franca ironically allowed it to instead become central in enabling the spread of Christianity—as indicated for example by the use of Greek for the Epistles of Paul.[8] In the first half of the 5th century, Greek was the standard language in which bishops communicated,[9] and the Acta Conciliorum (Acts of the Church Councils) were recorded originally in Greek and then translated into other languages.[10] Pagan[edit] The adoption of paganus by Latin Christians as an all-embracing, pejorative term for polytheists represents an unforeseen and singularly long-lasting victory, within a religious group, of a word of Latin slang originally devoid of religious meaning. The evolution occurred only in the Latin west, and in connection with the Latin church. Elsewhere, Hellene or gentile (ethnikos) remained the word for pagan; and paganos continued as a purely secular term, with overtones of the inferior and the commonplace. —Peter Brown, Late Antiquity, 1999[11] The term pagan is from Late Latin paganus, revived during the Renaissance. Itself deriving from classical Latin pagus which originally meant region delimited by markers, paganus had also come to mean of or relating to the countryside, country dweller, villager; by extension, rustic, unlearned, yokel, bumpkin; in Roman military jargon, non-combantant, civilian, unskilled soldier. It is related to pangere (to fix, to fasten) and ultimately comes from Proto-Indo-European *pag- (to fix).[12] Medieval writers often assumed paganus as a religious term was a result of the conversion patterns during the Christianization of Europe, where people in towns and cities were converted more readily than those in remote regions, where old ways lingered. However, this idea has multiple problems. First, the words usage as a reference to non-Christians pre-dates that period in history. Second, paganism within the Roman Empire centred on cities. The concept of an urban Christianity as opposed to a rural paganism would not have occurred to Romans during Early Christianity. Third, unlike words such as rusticitas, paganus had not yet fully acquired the meanings (of uncultured backwardness) used to explain why it would have been applied to pagans.[13] Paganus more likely acquired its meaning in Christian nomenclature via Roman military jargon (see above). Early Christians adopted military motifs and saw themselves as Milites Christi (soldiers of Christ).[12][13] A good example of Christians still using paganus in a military context rather than religious is in Tertullians De Corona Militis XI.V, where Christians are referred to as paganus (civilian):[13] Apud hunc [Christum] tam miles est paganus fidelis quam paganus est miles fidelis.[14] With Him [Christ] the faithful citizen is a soldier, just as the faithful soldier is a citizen.[15] Paganus acquired its religious connotations by the mid-4th century.[13] As early as the 5th century, paganos was metaphorically used to denote persons outside the bounds of the Christian community. Following the sack of Rome to pagan Visigoths just over fifteen years after the Christian persecution of paganism under Theodosius I,[16] murmurs began to spread that the old gods had taken greater care of the city than the Christian God. In response, Augustine of Hippo wrote De Civitate Dei contra Paganos (The City of God against the Pagans). In it, he contrasted the fallen city of Man to the city of God of which all Christians were ultimately citizens. Hence, the foreign invaders were not of the city or rural.[17][18][19] The term pagan is not attested in the English language until the 17th century.[20] In addition to infidel and heretic, it was used as one of several pejorative Christian counterparts to gentile (גוי / נכרי) as used in Judaism and to kafir (كافر, unbeliever) and mushrik (مشرك, idolater) as in Islam.[21] Heathen[edit] Main articles: Germanic neopaganism and Germanic paganism Heathen comes from Old English hæðen (not Christian or Jewish); cf. Old Norse heiðinn. This meaning for the term originated from Gothic haiþno (gentile woman) being used to translate Hellene (cf. Mark 7:26) in Wulfilas Bible, the first translation of the Bible into a Germanic language. This may have been influenced by the Greek and Latin terminology of the time used for pagans. If so, it may be derived from Gothic haiþi (dwelling on the heath). However, this is not attested. It may even be a borrowing of Greek ἔθνος (ethnos) via Armenian hethanos.[22] Definition[edit] It is perhaps misleading even to say that there was such a religion as “paganism” at the beginning of [the Common Era] ... It might be less confusing to say that the pagans, before their competition with Christianity, had no religion at all in the sense in which that word is normally used today. They had no tradition of discourse about ritual or religious matters (apart from philosophical debate or antiquarian treatise), no organized system of beliefs to which they were asked to commit themselves, no authority-structure peculiar to the religious area, above all no commitment to a particular group of people or set of ideas other than their family and political context. If this is the right view of pagan life, it follows that we should look on paganism quite simply as a religion invented in the course of the second to third centuries AD, in competition and interaction with Christians, Jews and others. —North 1992, 187—88, [23] Defining paganism is problematic. Understanding the context of its associated terminology is important.[24] Early Christians referred to the diverse array of cults around them as a single group for convenience and rhetoric.[25] While paganism generally implies polytheism, the primary distinction between classical pagans and Christians was not one of monotheism versus polytheism. Not all pagans were strictly polytheist. Throughout history, many of them believed in a supreme deity. (Although, most such pagans believed in a class of subordinate gods/daimons—see henotheism—or divine emanations.)[26] To Christians, the most important distinction was whether or not someone worshipped the one true God. Those who did not (polytheist, monotheist, atheist, or otherwise) were outsiders to the Church and thus pagan.[27] Similarly, classical pagans would have found it peculiar to distinguish groups by the number of deities followers venerate. They would have considered the priestly colleges (such as the College of Pontiffs or Epulones) and cult practices more meaningful distinctions.[28] Referring to paganism as pre-Christian indigenous religions is equally untenable. Not all historical pagan traditions were pre-Christian or indigenous to their places of worship.[24] Owing to the history of its nomenclature, paganism traditionally encompass the collective pre- and non-Christian cultures in and around the classical world; including those of the Greco-Roman, Celtic, Germanic, Slavic tribes.[29] However, modern parlance of folklorists and contemporary pagans in particular has extended the original four millennia scope used by early Christians to include similar religious traditions stretching far into prehistory.[30] Perception[edit] Paganism came to be equated by Christians with a sense of hedonism, representing those who are sensual, materialistic, self-indulgent, unconcerned with the future, and uninterested in sophisticated religion. Pagans were usually described within this worldly stereotype, especially among those drawing attention to what they perceived as the limitations of paganism. Thus G. K. Chesterton wrote: The Pagan set out, with admirable sense, to enjoy himself. By the end of his civilization he had discovered that a man cannot enjoy himself and continue to enjoy anything else. In sharp contrast, Swinburne the poet would comment on this same theme: Thou hast conquered, O pale Galilean; the world has grown grey from thy breath; We have drunken of things Lethean, and fed on the fullness of death.[31] History[edit] Bronze Age to Early Iron Age[edit] Some megaliths are believed to have religious significance. Religions of the ancient Near East Ancient Egyptian religion Ancient Semitic religion Ancient Mesopotamian religion Classical antiquity[edit] Hypatia, a Neoplatonist philosopher, mathematician, and astronomer— killed by a Christian mob, in March 415 CE, after becoming embroiled in a religious feud in Alexandria. Main articles: Religion in ancient Greece, Ancient Roman religion, Hellenistic religion and Roman imperial cult Ludwig Feuerbach defined paganism of classical antiquity, which he termed Heidentum, literally heathenry as the unity of religion and politics, of spirit and nature, of god and man,[32] qualified by the observation that man in the pagan view is always defined by ethnicity, i.e. Greek, Roman, Egyptian, Jew, etc., so that each pagan tradition is also a national tradition. Modern historians define paganism instead as the aggregate of cult acts, set within a civic rather than a national context, without a written creed or sense of orthodoxy.[33] Feuerbach went on to postulate that the emergence of monotheism and thus the end of the pagan period was a development which naturally grew out of Hellenistic philosophy due to the contradiction inherent in the ethnic nature of pagan tradition and the universality of human spirituality (Geist), finally resulting in the emergence of a religion with a universalist scope in the form of Christianity,[34] No modern historian would see the emergence of Christianity as a culmination of a trend towards an exclusive monotheism: favoured deities addressed as the One did not preclude their followers, even their priests, from worshiping other gods as well.[35] Late Antiquity[edit] Further information: Decline of Hellenistic paganism and Hellenic philosophy and Christianity The developments of Late Antiquity in the religious thought in the far-flung Roman Empire needs to be addressed separately, as this is the context in which Early Christianity itself developed as one of several monotheistic cults, and it was in this period that the concept of pagan developed in the first place. Christianity as it emerged from Second Temple Judaism (or Hellenistic Judaism) stood in competition with other religions advocating pagan monotheism, including Neoplatonism, Mithraism, Gnosticism, Manichaeanism, and the cult of Dionysus.[36] Dionysus in particular exhibits significant parallels with Christ, so that numerous scholars have concluded that the recasting of Jesus the wandering rabbi into the image of Christ the Logos, the divine saviour, reflects the cult of Dionysus directly. They point to the symbolism of wine and the importance it held in the mythology surrounding both Dionysus and Jesus Christ;[37][38] Wick argues that the use of wine symbolism in the Gospel of John, including the story of the Marriage at Cana at which Jesus turns water into wine, was intended to show Jesus as superior to Dionysus.[39] The scene in The Bacchae wherein Dionysus appears before King Pentheus on charges of claiming divinity is compared to the New Testament scene of Jesus being interrogated by Pontius Pilate.[39][40][41] During Muhammads era in Arabia[edit] [hide] v t e List of expeditions of Muhammad Ghazwah (expeditions where he took part) Raids Abwa Buwat Safwan Dul 1st Badr Kudr Sawiq Qaynuqa Thi Bahran Uhud Asad Nadir 2nd Nejd 2nd Badr Jandal Trench Qurayza Lahyan Mustaliq Treaty Khaybar Fadak Qura Dhat Baqra Mecca Hunayn Autas Taif Tabouk Sariyyah (expeditions which he ordered) Nakhla 1st Nejd Qatan Unais Raji Damri Bir Atik Maslamah Ukasha 1st Thala 2nd Thala Qarad Jumum Is 3rd Thala Hisma Zaid Auf 1st Ali Wadi Kurz Rawaha Umar Bakr Bashir Mayfah Ghalib Yemen Sulami Kadid Layth Shuja Kab Mutah 1st Amr Ubaidah Hadrad Edam Khadirah Khalid 2nd Amr Sad Jadh Tufail 1st Autas 2nd Autas Tamim Khatham Dahhak Jeddah 3rd Ali Udhrah 3rd Khalid 4th Khalid Sufyan Jurash Najran Mudhij Hamdan Dhul Army of Usama (Final Expedition) Main article: List of expeditions of Muhammad The Arab pagans became virtually extinct during Muhammads era. They were involved in many conflicts with Muhammad. One of the earliest was the Nakhla Raid. After his return from the first Badr encounter (Battle of Safwan), Muhammad sent Abdullah ibn Jahsh in Rajab with 12 men on a fact-finding operation. Abdullah ibn Jahsh was a maternal cousin of Muhammad. He took along with him Abu Haudhayfa, Abdullah ibn Jahsh, Ukkash ibn Mihsan, Utba b. Ghazwan, Sa’d ibn Abi Waqqas, Amir ibn Rabia, Waqid ibn Abdullah and Khalid ibn al-Bukayr.[42][43] One of Abdullah ibn Jahsh’s men, Ukkash ibn Mihsan, was shaven in head to hide the real purpose of their journey and to give the Quraysh the impression of lesser Hajj (Umra); for it was the month (Rajab) when hostilities were forbidden. When the Quraysh saw the shaven head of Ukkash, they thought that the group was on its way for pilgrimage and they felt relieved and began to set up camp. They said, These people seek the `Umrah, so there is no need to fear them. [43] The sacred months of the Arab Pagans were the 1st, 7th, 11th and 12th months of the Islamic calendar according to the Muslim scholar Safiur Rahman Mubarakpuri.[44] After Muhammad had conquered Mecca he had set out to destroy pagan Idols. During the Expedition of Ali ibn Abi Talib Muhammad sent Ali with 150 men to destroy the statue (idol) of the pagan God al-Qullus, worshipped by the people of Banu Tai. 100 of the Muslim fighters were on camel and the rest were on horseback. Ali took with him a black flag, and a white banner.[45][46] Adi bin Hatim (the chief of the tribe) escaped to Syria[47] At dawn, Ali carried out a raid on the inhabitants and demolished the statue of al-Qullus, and captured lots of camel and sheep as war booty (spoils). The Muslims also took a number of men, women and children as captives. One of the captives was Hatim Tais (the former chief of the tribes) daughter.[45][46] Adi bin Hatim (the chief of the tribe) escaped to Syria[47] One of the last military campaigns that Muhammad ordered against the Arab pagans was the Demolition of Dhul Khalasa. It occurred in April and May 632 AD, in 10AH of the Islamic Calendar. Dhul Khalasa is referred to both as an idol and a temple, and was known by some as the Kaba of Yemen, built and worshipped by pagan tribes,[48] Muhammad sent a party of his followers to destroy it.[49][50][51][52] Muhammad sent 500 horsemen (or 150 according to Sahih al-Bukhari[53]) to Dhul Khalasa[54] to destroy the “Yemenite Ka’ba”.[50] Hisham Ibn Al-Kalbi mentions when Jarir ibn Abdullah proceeded to Dhul Khalasa, he was met with resistance. The Muslims led by him, fought and killed 100 men “of the Bahilah, its custodians, and many of the Khatham” and another 200 men of the “Banu-Qubafah” tribes. He then demolished the building and set it on fire.[52][55][56] Early Modern period[edit] Interest in pagan traditions was revived in the Renaissance, at first in Renaissance magic as a revival of Greco-Roman magic. In the 17th century, description of paganism turned from the theological aspect to the ethnological, and a religion began to be understood as part of the ethnic identity of a people, and the study of the religions of primitive peoples triggered questions as to the ultimate historical origin of religion. Thus, Nicolas Fabri de Peiresc saw the pagan religions of Africa of his day as relicts that were in principle capable of shedding light on the historical paganism of Classical Antiquity.[57] Romanticism[edit] Paganism re-surfaces as a topic of fascination in 18th to 19th century Romanticism, in particular in the context of the literary Celtic and Viking revivals, which portrayed historical Celtic and Germanic polytheists as noble savages. Rapunzel - an illustration from the Brothers Grimm adaptation The 19th century also saw much scholarly interest in the reconstruction of pagan mythology from folklore or fairy tales. This was notably attempted by the Brothers Grimm, especially Jacob Grimm in his Teutonic Mythology, and Elias Lönnrot with the compilation of the Kalevala. The work of the Brothers Grimm influenced other collectors, both inspiring them to collect tales and leading them to similarly believe that the fairy tales of a country were particularly representative of it, to the neglect of cross-cultural influence. Among those influenced were the Russian Alexander Afanasyev, the Norwegians Peter Christen Asbjørnsen and Jørgen Moe, and the Englishman Joseph Jacobs.[58] Romanticist interest in non-classical antiquity coincided with the rise of Romantic nationalism and the rise of the nation state in the context of the 1848 revolutions, leading to the creation of national epics and national myths for the various newly formed states. Pagan or folkloric topics were also common in the Musical nationalism of the period. Survivals in folklore[edit] Further information: Folklore In addition, folklore that is not any longer perceived as holding any religious significance can, in some instances, be traced to pre-Christian or pre-Islamic origins. In Europe, this is particularly the case with the various customs of Carnival like the carnival in the Netherlands or Fasnacht and the Yule traditions surrounding Santa Claus/Sinterklaas. By contrast, in spite of frequent association with Thors Oak, the Christmas tree cannot be shown to predate the Early Modern period.[citation needed] Contemporary paganism[edit] Main article: Modern paganism Children standing with The Lady of Cornwall in a pagan ceremony in England Pagan handfasting ceremony at Avebury (Beltane 2005). Contemporary Paganism, or Neopaganism, can include reconstructed religions such as the Cultus Deorum Romanorum, Hellenic polytheism, Slavic Neopaganism (Rodnovery), Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism, or Germanic religious reconstructionism, as well as modern eclectic traditions such as Discordianism, Wicca and its many offshoots. However, there often exists a distinction or separation between some polytheistic Reconstructionists such as the Greek or Hellenic Polytheistic Reconstructionists of the Hellenismos religion and revivalist Neopagans like Wiccans. The divide is over numerous issues such as; the importance of accurate orthopraxy according to ancient sources available, the use and concept of magic, which calendar to use and which holidays to observe, as well as the use of the term pagan itself.[59][60][61] Many of the revivals, Wicca and Neo-druidism in particular, have their roots in 19th century Romanticism and retain noticeable elements of occultism or theosophy that were current then, setting them apart from historical rural (paganus) folk religion. Most Pagans, however, believe in the divine character of the natural world and Paganism is often described as an Earth religion.[62] The hammer Mjöllnir is one of the primary symbols of Germanic Neopaganism. There are a number of Pagan authors who have examined the relation of the 20th-century movements of polytheistic revival with historical polytheism on one hand and contemporary traditions of indigenous folk religion on the other. Isaac Bonewits introduces a terminology to make this distinction,[63] Paleopaganism: A retronym coined to contrast with Neopaganism, original polytheistic, nature-centered faiths, such as the pre-Hellenistic Greek and pre-imperial Roman religion, pre-Migration period Germanic paganism as described by Tacitus, or Celtic polytheism as described by Julius Caesar. Mesopaganism: A group, which is, or has been, significantly influenced by monotheistic, dualistic, or nontheistic worldviews, but has been able to maintain an independence of religious practices. This group includes aboriginal Americans as well as Australian aborigines, Viking Age Norse paganism and New Age spirituality. Influences include: Freemasonry, Rosicrucianism, Spiritualism, and the many Afro-Diasporic faiths like Haitian Vodou, Santería and Espiritu religion. Isaac Bonewits includes British Traditional Wicca in this subdivision. Neopaganism: A movement by modern people to revive nature-worshipping, pre-Christian religions or other nature-based spiritual paths, frequently also incorporating contemporary liberal values at odds with ancient paganism. This definition may include groups such as Wicca, Neo-Druidism, Ásatrú, and Slavic Rodnovery. Prudence Jones and Nigel Pennick in their A History of Pagan Europe (1995) classify pagan religions as characterized by the following traits: polytheism: Pagan religions recognise a plurality of divine beings, which may or may not be considered aspects of an underlying unity (the soft and hard polytheism distinction) nature-based: Pagan religions have a concept of the divinity of Nature, which they view as a manifestation of the divine, not as the fallen creation found in Dualistic cosmology. sacred feminine: Pagan religions recognize the female divine principle, identified as the Goddess (as opposed to individual goddesses) beside or in place of the male divine principle as expressed in the Abrahamic God.[64] In modern times, Heathen and Heathenry are increasingly used to refer to those branches of paganism inspired by the pre-Christian religions of the Germanic, Scandinavian and Anglo-Saxon peoples.[65] In Iceland, the members of Ásatrúarfélagið account for 0.4% of the total population,[66] which is just over a thousand people. In Lithuania, many people practice Romuva, a revived version of the pre-Christian religion of that country. Lithuania was among the last areas of Europe to be Christianized. In originally Anglo-Saxon nations such as Australia, Odinism has been established on a formal basis since at least the 1930s. Paganism in Arabia[edit] Even after Muhammad had destroyed the Pagan Idol and Temple of Dhul Khalasa during the Demolition of Dhul Khalasa military expedition,[52][55][56] the cult of Dhul Khalasa was resurrected and worshipped in the region until 1815, when members of the Sunni Wahhabi movement organised military campaigns to suppress remnants of pagan worship. The reconstructed idol was subsequently destroyed by gunfire.[49] Christianity as pagan[edit] Christianity itself has been perceived at times as a form of polytheism by followers of the other Abrahamic religions[67] because of the Christian doctrine of the Trinity (which at first glance might suggest Tritheism,[68]) or the celebration of pagan feast days[69] and other practices – through a process described as baptizing[70] or Christianization. Even between Christians there have been similar charges of idolatry levelled, especially by Protestants,[71][72] towards the Roman Catholic and Orthodox Churches for their veneration of the saints and images. Some scholars think that the essential doctrines of Christianity have been influenced by pre-Christianity, paganism, or European occults.[73] Ethnic religions of pre-Christian Europe[edit] Further information: Christianization Cuman statue, 11th century, Ukraine Albanian mythology Armenian paganism Baltic paganism Basque mythology Celtic polytheism Etruscan religion Finnic mythology Germanic paganism Norse mythology Religion in ancient Greece Religion in ancient Rome Slavic paganism Vainakh mythology See also[edit] Crypto-Paganism Animism List of pagans Myth and ritual References[edit] Notes Jump up ^ Lewis, James R. (2004). The Oxford Handbook of New Religious Movements. Oxford University Press. p. 13. ISBN 0-19-514986-6. Jump up ^ Hanegraff, Wouter J. (1006). New Age Religion and Western Culture: Esotericism in the Mirror of Secular Thought. Brill Academic Publishers. p. 84. ISBN 90-04-10696-0. Jump up ^ Dennis D. Carpenter. Emergent Nature Spirituality: An Examination of the Major Spiritual Contours of the Contemporary Pagan Worldview. In James R. Lewis. Magical Religion and Modern Witchcraft. State University of New York Press. p. 40. ISBN 978-0-7914-2890-0. Jump up ^ Augustine, Confessions 1.14.23; Moatii, Translation, Migration, and Communication, p. 112. ^ Jump up to: a b c Cameron, Alan G.; Long, Jacqueline; Sherry, Lee (1993). 2: Synesius of Cyrene; VI: The Dion. Barbarians and Politics at the Court of Arcadius. University of California Press. pp. 66–67. ISBN 9780520065505. ^ Jump up to: a b Cameron 2011, pp. 16—17. Jump up ^ Simon Swain, Defending Hellenism: Philostratus, in Honour of Apollonius, in Apologetics, p. 173. Jump up ^ Treadgold, A History of the Byzantine State, p. 5. Jump up ^ Millar, A Greek Roman Empire, pp. 97–98. Jump up ^ Millar, A Greek Roman Empire, p. 98. Jump up ^ Peter Brown, in Glen Warren Bowersock, Peter Robert Lamont Brown, Oleg Grabar, eds., Late Antiquity: a guide to the postclassical world, 1999, s.v. Pagan. ^ Jump up to: a b Harper, Douglas. pagan (n.). The Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 18 July 2013. ^ Jump up to: a b c d Cameron 2011, pp. 14—15. Jump up ^ De Corona Militis XI.V Jump up ^ Ante-Nicene Fathers III, De Corona XI Jump up ^ Theodosius I, The Catholic Encyclopedia, 1912 Jump up ^ The City of God. Britannica Ultimate Reference Suite DVD, 2003. Jump up ^ Orosius Histories 1. Prol. ui alieni a civitate dei..pagani vocantur. Jump up ^ C. Mohrmann, Vigiliae Christianae 6 (1952) 9ff; Oxford English Dictionary, (online) 2nd Edition (1989) Jump up ^ The OED instances Edward Gibbons Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (1776): The divisions of Christianity suspended the ruin of paganism. Jump up ^ Eisenstadt, S.N., 1983, Transcendental Visions – Other-Worldliness – and Its Transformations: Some More Comments on L. Dumont. Religion13:1–17, at p. 3. Jump up ^ Harper, Douglas. heathen (n.). The Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 18 July 2013. Jump up ^ Cameron 2011, pp. 26—27. ^ Jump up to: a b Davies 2011, Defining paganism. Jump up ^ Cameron 2011, p. 26. Jump up ^ Cameron 2011, pp. 28, 30. Jump up ^ Cameron 2011, pp. 27, 31. Jump up ^ Cameron 2011, p. 29. Jump up ^ Cameron 2011, p. 28. Jump up ^ Davies 2011, Chapter 1: The ancient world. Jump up ^ Hymn to Proserpine Jump up ^ cf. the civil, natural and mythical theologies of Marcus Terentius Varro Jump up ^ A summary of the modern view is given in Robin Lane Fox, Pagans and Christians 1989:31ff: The modern emphasis on paganisms cult acts was also acknowledged by pagans themselves. It shaped the way they tried and tested Christians. Jump up ^ Ludwig Feuerbach, Geschichte der neueren Philosophie (1833), Introduction, §1 (Paganism, Philosophy, Religion, Christianity) Das Wesen des Heidentums war die Einheit von Religion und Politik, Geist und Natur, Gott und Mensch. Aber der Mensch im Heidentum war nicht der Mensch schlechtweg, sondern der nationell bestimmte Mensch: der Grieche, der Römer, der Ägyptier, der Jude, folglich auch sein Gott ein nationell bestimmtes, besonderes, dem Wesen oder Gotte anderer Völker entgegengesetztes Wesen — ein Wesen also im Widerspruch mit dem Geiste, welcher das Wesen der Menschheit und als ihr Wesen die allgemeine Einheit aller Völker und Menschen ist. Die Aufhebung dieses Widerspruchs im Heidentum war die heidnische Philosophie; denn sie riß den Menschen heraus aus seiner nationellen Abgeschlossenheit und Selbstgenügsamkeit, erhob ihn über die Borniertheit des Volksdünkels und Volksglaubens, versetzte ihn auf den kosmopolitischen Standpunkt. (The essence of paganism was the unity of religion and politics, spirit and nature, God and man. But man in paganism was not the man rough road, but the nationell certain man: the Greeks, the Romans, the Egyptians, the Jew, and consequently his God a nationell specific, particular, the nature or god other peoples opposing creature - a being thus, in contradiction to the spirit which is the essence of humanity and its nature as the general unity of all nations and people. The repeal of this contradiction in paganism was the pagan philosophy; for she snatched the man out of his nation ellen seclusion and self-sufficiency, raised him above the narrow-mindedness of the peoples arrogance and folk beliefs, put him on the cosmopolitan point of view. Google translation) Jump up ^ Fox 1989:35. Jump up ^ E. Kessler, Dionysian Monotheism in Nea Paphos, Cyprus two monotheistic religions, Dionysian and Christian, existed contemporaneously in Nea Paphos during the 4th century C.E. [...] the particular iconography of Hermes and Dionysos in the panel of the Epiphany of Dionysos [...] represents the culmination of a pagan iconographic tradition in which an infant divinity is seated on the lap of another divine figure; this pagan motif was appropriated by early Christian artists and developed into the standardized icon of the Virgin and Child. Thus the mosaic helps to substantiate the existence of Pagan monotheism.. Biblical Studies on the Web Jump up ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece 6. 26. 1 - 2 Jump up ^ Athenaeus, Deipnosophistae 2. 34a ^ Jump up to: a b Wick, Peter (2004). Jesus gegen Dionysos? Ein Beitrag zur Kontextualisierung des Johannesevangeliums. Biblica (Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute) 85 (2): 179–198. Retrieved 2007-10-10. Jump up ^ Studies in Early Christology, by Martin Hengel, 2005, p.331 (ISBN 0567042804) Jump up ^ Powell, Barry B., Classical Myth Second ed. With new translations of ancient texts by Herbert M. Howe. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1998. Jump up ^ Mubarakpuri, Saifur Rahman Al (2005), The sealed nectar: biography of the Noble Prophet, Darussalam Publications, pp. 245–246, ISBN 978-9960-899-55-8 ^ Jump up to: a b Muhammad Saed Abdul-Rahman, Tafsir Ibn Kathir Juz 2 (Part 2): Al-Baqarah 142 to Al-Baqarah 252 2nd Edition, p. 139, MSA Publication Limited, 2009, ISBN 1861796765. (online) Jump up ^ Mubarakpuri, The Sealed Nectar (Free Version), p. 129 ^ Jump up to: a b Sad, Ibn (1967). Kitab al-tabaqat al-kabir,By Ibn Sad,Volume 2. Pakistan Historical Society. p. 380. ASIN B0007JAWMK. ^ Jump up to: a b Rahman al-Mubarakpuri, Saifur (2005), The Sealed Nectar, Darussalam Publications, p. 269 ^ Jump up to: a b Mufti, M. Mukarram Ahmed (Dec 2007), Encyclopaedia of Islam, Anmol Publications Pvt Ltd, p. 103, ISBN 978-81-261-2339-1 Jump up ^ Robertson Smith, William (2010). Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia. Forgotten Books. p. 297. ISBN 978-1-4400-8379-2. ^ Jump up to: a b S. Salibi, Kamal (2007). Who Was Jesus?: Conspiracy in Jerusalem. Tauris Parke Paperbacks. p. 146. ISBN 978-1-8451-1314-8. ^ Jump up to: a b Muir, William (August 1878). The life of Mahomet. Kessinger Publishing. p. 219. Jump up ^ Mubarakpuri, Saifur Rahman Al (2002). When the Moon Split. DarusSalam. p. 296. ISBN 978-9960-897-28-8. ^ Jump up to: a b c Glasse, Cyril (28 Jan 2003). The new encyclopedia of Islam. US: AltaMira Press. p. 251. ISBN 978-0-7591-0190-6. Jump up ^ Sahih al-Bukhari, 5:59:641 Jump up ^ Dermenghem, Émile (1930). The life of Mahomet. G. Routledge. p. 239. ISBN 978-9960-897-71-4. Five hundred horsemen went to Dhul Khalasa to demolish the Yemenite Kaba ^ Jump up to: a b Ibn al Kalbi, Hisham (1952). The book of idols: being a translation from the Arabic of the Kitāb al-asnām. Princeton University Press. pp. 31–2. ASIN B002G9N1NQ. ^ Jump up to: a b The Book of Idols, Scribd. Jump up ^ It would be a great pleasure to make the comparison with what survives to us of ancient paganism in our old books, in order to have better [grasped] their spirit. Peter N. Miller, History of Religion Becomes Ethnology: Some Evidence from Peirescs Africa Journal of the History of Ideas 67.4 (2006) 675–696.[1] Jump up ^ Jack Zipes, The Great Fairy Tale Tradition: From Straparola and Basile to the Brothers Grimm, p 846, ISBN 0-393-97636-X Jump up ^ ecauldron.net/dc-faq.php#4 Jump up ^ Supreme Council of Ethnikoi Hellenes. Pagans. Supreme Council of Ethnikoi Hellenes. Retrieved September 7, 2007. Jump up ^ Arlea Anschütz, Stormerne Hunt (1997). Call us Heathens!. Journal of the Pagan Federation. Retrieved September 7, 2007. Jump up ^ bbc.co.uk/religion/0/20693321 Jump up ^ Defining Paganism: Paleo-, Meso-, and Neo-(Version 2.5.1) 1979, 2007 c.e., Isaac Bonewits Jump up ^ Jones, Prudence; Pennick, Nigel (1995). A History of Pagan Europe. Page 2. Routledge. Jump up ^ [2] Jump up ^ Statistics Iceland – Statistics >> Population >> Religious organisations Jump up ^ Jewish Encyclopedia Jump up ^ Chapman, John (1912). Tritheists, The Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. 15. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved 17 May 2011. Jump up ^ Christianised calendar Jump up ^ The Pope, The Emperor and the Persian Leader Jump up ^ Philip Melanchthon Apologia Confessionis Augustanae Jump up ^ Jean Seznec The Survival of the Pagan Gods Jump up ^ Paganism in Our Christianity, by Arthur Weigall Bibliography Cameron, Alan G. (2011). The Last Pagans of Rome. New York, New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199780914. OCLC 553365192. Davies, Owen (2011). Paganism: A Very Short Introduction. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780191620010. Hua, Yih-Fen. book review to: Maria Effinger / Cornelia Logemann / Ulrich Pfisterer (eds): Götterbilder und Götzendiener in der Frühen Neuzeit. Europas Blick auf fremde Religionen. In: sehepunkte 13 (2013), Nr. 5 [15.05.2013], URL: sehepunkte.de/2013/05/21410.html. (Book review in English). Robert, P. & Scott, N., (1995) A History of Pagan Europe. New York, Barnes & Noble Books, ISBN 0-7607-1210-7. York, Michael Pagan Theology: Paganism as a World Religion NYU Press (2003), ISBN 0-8147-9708-3. External links[edit]
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