René Descartes First published Wed Dec 3, 2008; substantive revision Thu Jan 16, 2014 René Descartes (1596–1650) was a creative mathematician of the first order, an important scientific thinker, and an original metaphysician. During the course of his life, he was a mathematician first, a natural scientist or “natural philosopher” second, and a metaphysician third. In mathematics, he developed the techniques that made possible algebraic (or “analytic”) geometry. In natural philosophy, he can be credited with several specific achievements: co-framer of the sine law of refraction, developer of an important empirical account of the rainbow, and proposer of a naturalistic account of the formation of the earth and planets (a precursor to the nebular hypothesis). Rationalism is the philosophical stance according to which reason is the ultimate source of human knowledge. It rivals empiricism according to which the senses suffice in justifying knowledge. In a form or another, rationalism features in most philosophical tradition; in the Western one, it boasts a long and distinguished list of followers, including Plato, Descartes, and Kant. methodic doubt, in Cartesian philosophy, a way of searching for certainty by systematically though tentatively doubting everything. First, all statements are classified according to type and source of knowledge—e.g., knowledge from tradition, empirical knowledge, and mathematical knowledge. Cogito ergo sum] (/ˈkoʊɡɨtoʊ ˈɜrɡoʊ ˈsʊm/, also /ˈkɒɡɨtoʊ/, /ˈsʌm/; Classical Latin: [ˈkoːɡitoː ˈɛrɡoː ˈsʊm], I think, therefore I am) is a philosophical proposition by René Descartes. The simple meaning of the Latin phrase is that thinking about one’s existence proves—in and of itself—that an I exists to do the thinking; or, as Descartes explains, [W]e cannot doubt of our existence while we doubt dualism is the position that mental phenomena are, in some respects, non-physical,[1] or that the mind and body are not identical.[2] Thus, it encompasses a set of views about the relationship between mind and matter, and is contrasted with other positions, such as physicalism, in the mind–body problem Clear and Distinct Ideas Of the thoughts which Descartes finds in his mind, certain ones seem to possess more reality than others. So, for instance, the idea of a solid object such as a stone seems more real than processes such as heat or cold. Of these ideas, that of God seems to him to be the most clear and distinct of all. John Locke FRS (/ˈlɒk/; 29 August 1632 – 28 October 1704), was an Englishphilosopher and physician regarded as one of the most influential ofEnlightenment thinkers and known as the Father of Classical Liberalism.[2][3][4] Considered one of the first of the British empiricists, following the tradition of Francis Bacon, he is equally important to social contract theory. His work greatly affected the development of epistemology andpolitical philosophy. His writings influenced Voltaire and Rousseau, manyScottish Enlightenment thinkers, as well as the American revolutionaries. His contributions to classical republicanism and liberal theory are reflected in theUnited States Declaration of Independence. Empiricism is a theory which states that knowledge comes only or primarily fromsensory experience.[1] One of several views of epistemology, the study of human knowledge, along with rationalism and skepticism, empiricism emphasizes the role ofexperience and evidence, especially sensory experience, in the formation of ideas, over the notion of innate ideas or traditions;[2] empiricists may argue however that traditions (or customs) arise due to relations of previous sense experiences.[3 Empiricism is a theory which states that knowledge comes only or primarily fromsensory experience.[1] One of several views of epistemology, the study of human knowledge, along with rationalism and skepticism, empiricism emphasizes the role ofexperience and evidence, especially sensory experience, in the formation of ideas, over the notion of innate ideas or traditions;[2] empiricists may argue however that traditions (or customs) arise due to relations of previous sense experiences. The primary/secondary quality distinction is a conceptual distinction in epistemology and metaphysics, concerning the nature of reality. It is most explicitly articulated by John Locke in his Essay concerning Human Understanding, but earlier thinkers such as Galileo and Descartes made similar distinctions. Primary qualities are thought to be properties of objects that are independent of any observer, such as solidity, extension,motion, number and figure. These characteristics convey facts. They exist in the thing itself, can be determined with certainty, and do not rely on subjective judgments. For example, if a ball is round, no one can reasonably argue that it is a triangle. Secondary qualities are thought to be properties that produce sensations in observers, such as color, taste, smell, andsound. They can be described as the effect things have on certain people. Knowledge that comes from secondary qualities does not provide objective facts about things. Primary qualities are measurable aspects of physical reality. Secondary qualities are subjective. Simple and Complex After a person has sensations, his mind forms ideas. For instance, you see a red rose that smells sweet and soon are able to form ideas of redness and sweetness. Obviously, you dont need to be looking at a red thing or presently smelling a sweet thing to have the ideas of such things in your mind. Anything of which the mind is aware Locke calls an “idea.” How can ideas be categorized? Locke distinguishes between simple ideas, which come from one sense, such as bitter, sour, cold, and hot, which contain no other ideas and which cannot be created by you, and complex ideas, which are produced by the mind when it compounds and combines simple ideas. God is one example of a complex idea. To arrive at the idea of God, you can simply enlarge your stock of simple ideas such as existence, time, knowledge, power, goodness, and so on. Complex ideas may also be strange things such as unicorns or satyrs that have no actual existence but will always be analyzable into a medley of simple ideas acquired through experience. Immanuel Kant (German: [ɪˈmaːnu̯eːl kant]; 22 April 1724 – 12 February 1804) was a German philosopher who is widely considered to be a central figure ofmodern philosophy. He argued that fundamental concepts structure human experience, and that reason is the source of morality. His thought continues to have a major influence in contemporary thought, especially the fields ofmetaphysics, epistemology, ethics, political philosophy, and aesthetics. • Analytic a posteriori judgments cannot arise, since there is never any need to appeal to experience in support of a purely explicative assertion. • Synthetic a posteriori judgments are the relatively uncontroversial matters of fact we come to know by means of our sensory experience (though Wolff had tried to derive even these from the principle of contradiction). • Kant defines a priori knowledge as that kind of knowledge which is held independently of all experience, whereas empirical knowledge is possible only through experience. He further qualifies a priori with the adjective pure when the proposition in question contains no empirical elements, citing every alteration has its cause as a proposition which is a priori but not pure on the grounds that alteration is an empirical concept. Only a priori concepts, says Kant, can have properties likestrict necessity and strict universality, since these properties could never be ascertained empirically. All mathematical propositions, for example, are a priori.[5] A posteriori judgement 1. Derived by or designating the process of reasoning from facts or particulars to general principles or from effects to causes; inductive; empirical. 2. a. Justified by appeal to experience. Phenomena: the realm that the mind perceives Noumena: the realm of ultimate reality The categorical imperative (German: Kategorischer Imperativ) is the centralphilosophical concept in the deontological moral philosophy of Immanuel Kant. Introduced in Kants 1785 Grounding for the Metaphysics of Morals, it may be defined as a way of evaluating motivations for action. According to Kant, human beings occupy a special place in creation, and morality can be summed up in an imperative, or ultimate commandment of reason, from which all duties and obligations derive. He defined an imperative as any proposition declaring a certain action (or inaction) to be necessary. Phenomenology (from Greek: phainómenon that which appears and lógos study) is the philosophical study of the structures of experience and consciousness. As a philosophical movement it was founded in the early years of the 20th century by Edmund Husserl and was later expanded upon by a circle of his followers at the universities of Göttingen andMunich in Germany. It then spread to France, the United States, and elsewhere, often in contexts far removed from Husserls early work.[1] Edmund Gustav Albrecht Husserl (German: [ˈhʊsɐl]; April 8, 1859 – April 27, 1938[3]) was a German[4][5] philosopher who established the school ofphenomenology. He broke with the positivist orientation of the science and philosophy of his day. He elaborated critiques of historicism and ofpsychologism in logic. Not limited to empiricism, but believing that experience is the source of all knowledge, he worked on a method of phenomenological reduction by which a subject may come to know directly an essence. Phenomelogical epoche/Bracketing (German: Einklammerung; also called epoché or the phenomenological reduction) is a term in the philosophical school of phenomenology describing the act of suspending judgment about the natural world to instead focus on analysis of mental experience . Intentionality is a philosophical concept defined by the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy as the power of minds to be about, to represent, or to stand for, things, properties and states of affairs.[1] The term refers to the ability of the mind to form representations and should not be confused with intention. The term dates from medieval Scholastic philosophy, but was resurrected by Franz Brentano and adopted by Edmund Husserl. The earliest theory of intentionality is associated withSt. Anselms ontological argument for the existence of God and his tenets distinguishing between objects that exist in the understanding and objects that exist in reality.[ Martin Heidegger (German: [ˈmaɐ̯tiːn ˈhaɪdɛɡɐ]; September 26, 1889 – May 26, 1976) was a German philosopher, widely seen as a seminal thinker in theContinental tradition, although tainted by his association with the Nazi regime. From beginnings as a Catholic academic, he developed a groundbreaking philosophy that influenced literary, social and political theory, art andaesthetics, architecture, cultural anthropology, design, environmentalism,psychoanalysis and psychotherapy. Existentialism is a term applied to the work of certain late 19th- and 20th-century philosophers who, despite profound doctrinal differences,[1][2][3] shared the belief that philosophical thinking begins with the human subject—not merely the thinking subject, but the acting, feeling, living human individual.[4] In existentialism, the individuals starting point is characterized by what has been called the existential attitude, or a sense of disorientation and confusion in the face of an apparently meaningless or absurd world.[5] Many existentialists have also regarded traditional systematic or academic philosophies, in both style and content, as too abstract and remote from concrete human experience Jean-Paul Charles Aymard Sartre (/ˈsɑrtrə/; French: [saʁtʁ]; 21 June 1905 – 15 April 1980) was a French philosopher, playwright, novelist, screenwriter, political activist, biographer, and literary critic. He was one of the key figures in the philosophy of existentialism and phenomenology, and one of the leading figures in 20th-century French philosophy and Marxism. His work has also influenced sociology, critical theory, post-colonial theory, andliterary studies, and continues to influence these disciplines. Sartre has also been noted for his open relationship with the prominent feminist theoristSimone de Beauvoir. Søren Aabye Kierkegaard (/ˈsɔrən ˈkɪərkəɡɑrd/ or /ˈkɪərkəɡɔr/;Danish: [ˈsɶːɐn ˈkiɐ̯ɡəɡɒːˀ] ( listen)) (5 May 1813 – 11 November 1855) was a Danish philosopher, theologian, poet, social critic, and religious author who is widely considered to be the first existentialist philosopher.[1] He wrote critical texts on organized religion, Christendom, morality, ethics, psychology andphilosophy of religion, displaying a fondness for metaphor, irony and parables. Much of his philosophical work deals with the issues of how one lives as a single individual, giving priority to concrete human reality over abstract thinking, and highlighting the importance of personal choice and commitment.[2] He was a fierce critic of idealist intellectuals and philosophers of his time, such as Swedenborg,[3] Hegel, Goethe, Fichte, Schelling, Schlegel, and Hans Christian Andersen. Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (/ˈniːtʃə/[42] or /ˈnitʃi/;[43] German: [ˈfʁiːdʁɪç ˈvɪlhɛlm ˈniːt͡sʃə]; 15 October 1844 – 25 August 1900) was a Germanphilologist, philosopher, cultural critic, poet and composer. He wrote several critical texts on religion, morality, contemporary culture, philosophy and science, displaying a fondness for metaphor, irony and aphorism.
Posted on: Sun, 06 Jul 2014 09:01:24 +0000
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