SETTING THE STAGE In the late 15th century, India included lush lands studded with cities and temples. The Hindu lower classes labored in the service of their Muslim or Hindu masters. At the same time, nomadic warriors roamed the highlands to the northwest, eager for battle. Early History of the Mughal Empire The people who invaded India called themselves Mughals, which means “Mongols.” The land they invaded had been through a long period of turmoil. The Gupta Empire crumbled in the 600s. First, Arabs invaded. Then, warlike Muslim tribes from central Asia carved northwestern India into many small kingdoms. Those kingdoms were ruled by leaders called Rajputs, or “sons of kings.” Ongoing Conflicts The 8th century began with a long, bloody clash between Hindus and Muslims in this fragmented land. For almost 300 years, though, the Hindus held off the Arab Muslims. They were able to advance only as far as the Indus River valley. Starting around the year 1000, however, welltrained Turkish armies swept into India. Led by Sultan Mahmud (muh•MOOD) of Ghazni, they devastated Indian cities and temples in 17 brutal campaigns. These attacks left the region weakened and vulnerable to other conquerors. Delhi eventually became the capital of a loose empire of Turkish warlords called the Delhi Sultanate. These sultans treated the Hindus as conquered people. Between the 13th and 16th centuries, 33 different sultans ruled this divided territory from its seat in Delhi. In 1398, Timur the Lame destroyed Delhi so completely that, according to one witness, “for two whole months, not a bird moved in The Mughals Establish an Empire in India 3 TERMS & NAMES • Mughal • Babur • Akbar • Jahangir • Nur Jahan • Sikh • Shah Jahan • Taj Mahal • Aurangzeb MAIN IDEA The Mughal Empire brought Turks, Persians, and Indians together in a vast empire. WHY IT MATTERS NOW The legacy of great art and deep social division left by the Mughal Empire still influences southern Asia. Lahore Kabul Delhi Agra Surat Benares Patna Dacca Calcutta Bombay Calicut Cochin Pondicherry Madras 80° E Tropic of Cancer Indus R. Ganges R. Brahmaput ra R. A r a b i a n S e a B a y o f B e n g a l BENGAL KASHMIR PUNJAB DECCAN PLATEAU CEYLON H I M A L A Y A S 0 0 300 Miles 600 Kilometers Growth of the Mughal Empire, 1526–1707 Mughal Empire, 1526—Babur Added by 1605—Akbar Added by 1707—Aurangzeb GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Maps 1. Movement During which time period was the most territory added to the Mughal Empire? 2. Location What landform might have prevented the empire from expanding farther east? 451 451-457-0418s3 10/11/02 4:12 PM Page 451 the city.” Delhi eventually was rebuilt. But it was not until the 16th century that a leader arose who would unify the empire. Babur Founds an Empire In 1494, an 11-year-old boy named Babur inherited a kingdom in the area that is now Uzbekistan and Tajikistan. It was only a tiny kingdom, and his elders soon took it away and drove him south. But the boy built up an army. In the years that followed, he swept down into India and laid the groundwork for the vast Mughal Empire. Babur was a strong, sensitive leader. According to legend, he could leap a wall holding a man under each arm. But he also wrote poetry and loved art and gardens. He was a brilliant general as well. In 1526, for example, Babur led 12,000 troops to victory against an army of 100,000 commanded by a sultan of Delhi. Perhaps it was his sensitivity to his soldiers that made him such an effective leader: A V O I C E F R O M T H E PA S T Some in the army were very anxious and full of fear. Nothing recommends anxiety and fear. . . . Why? Because what God has fixed in eternity cannot be changed. But . . . it was no reproach to be afraid and anxious. . . . Why? Because those thus anxious and afraid were there with a two or three months’ journey between them and their homes; our affair was with a foreign tribe and people; none knew their tongue, nor did they know ours. BABUR, The Babur-Nama (Memoirs of Babur) A year later, Babur also defeated a massive Rajput army. After Babur’s death, his incompetent son, Humayun, lost most of the territory Babur had gained. Babur’s 13- year-old grandson took over the throne after Humayun’s death. The Golden Age of Akbar Babur’s grandson was called Akbar, which means “Great One.” Akbar certainly lived up to his name by ruling India with wisdom and tolerance from 1556 to 1605. A Liberal Ruler Akbar was a Muslim, and he firmly defended religious freedom. He proved his tolerance by marrying, among others, two Hindus, a Christian, and a Muslim. He allowed his wives to practice their religious rituals in the palace. He proved his tolerance again by abolishing both the tax on Hindu pilgrims and the hated jizya, or tax on non-Muslims. He even appointed a Spanish Jesuit to tutor his second son. Akbar was a genius at cultural blending. Akbar governed through a bureaucracy of officials. Natives and foreigners, Hindus and Muslims, could all rise to high office. This approach contributed to the quality of his government. Akbar’s chief finance minister, Todar Mal, for example, created a clever—and effective—taxation policy. He calculated the tax as a percent of the value of the peasants’ crops, similar to the present-day U.S. graduated income tax. Because this tax was fair and affordable, the number of peasants who paid it increased. This payment brought in much needed money for the empire. Akbar’s land policies had more mixed results. He gave generous land grants to his bureaucrats. After they died, however, he reclaimed the lands and distributed them as he saw fit. On the positive side, this policy prevented the growth of feudal aristocracies. On the other hand, it did not encourage dedication and hard work by the Mughal officials. Their children would not inherit the land or benefit from their parents’ work. So the officials apparently saw no point in devoting themselves to their property. THINK THROUGH HISTORY A. Comparing In what ways were Akbar’s attitudes toward religion similar to those of Suleiman the Lawgiver? A. Answer They were both extremely tolerant—Akbar in both his personal life and government policies, and Suleiman through the millet system. Background One of the secrets of Babur’s success is that he lashed cannons together to fire massive volleys against troops mounted on elephants. Akbar 1542–1605 Akbar was brilliant and curious, especially about religion. He even invented a religion of his own— the “Divine Faith”—which combined elements of Hinduism, Jainism, Christianity, and Sufism. The religion attracted few followers, however, and offended Muslims so much that they attempted a brief revolt against Akbar in 1581. When he died, so did the “Divine Faith.” Surprisingly, despite his wisdom and his achievements, Akbar could not read. He hired others to read to him from his library of 24,000 books. ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■HI■ST■O■RY■M■AK■E■RS■ 452 Chapter 18 451-457-0418s3 10/11/02 4:12 PM Page 452 The Muslim World Expands 453 A Military Conqueror For all his humanity, however, Akbar recognized military power as the root of his strength. He believed in war for its own sake. “A monarch should ever be intent on conquest,” he said, “otherwise his neighbors rise in arms against him.” Like the Safavids and the Ottomans, Akbar equipped his armies with heavy artillery. Cannons enabled him to crack into walled cities and extend his rule into much of the Deccan plateau. In a brilliant move, he appointed some Rajputs as officers. In this way he turned potential enemies into allies. This combination of military power and political wisdom enabled Akbar to unify a land of at least 100 million people—more than all of Europe put together. A Flowering of Culture As Akbar extended the Mughal Empire, he welcomed influences from the many cultures it included. This cultural mingling affected art, education, politics, and the language as well. Persian was the language of Akbar’s court and of high culture. The common people, however, spoke Hindi, a mixture of Persian and a local language. Hindi remains one of the most widely spoken languages in India today. Out of the Mughal armies, where soldiers of many backgrounds rubbed shoulders, came yet another new language. This language was Urdu, which means “from the soldier’s camp.” A blend of Arabic, Persian, and Hindi, Urdu is today the official language of Pakistan. The arts flourished at the Mughal court, especially in the form of book illustrations. These small, highly detailed and colorful paintings were called miniatures. They were brought to a peak of perfection in the Safavid Empire. Babur’s son, Humayun, brought two masters of this art to his court to teach it to the Mughals. Some of the most famous Mughal miniatures adorned the Akbarnamah (“Book of Akbar”), the story of the great emperor’s campaigns and deeds. Indian art drew from Western traditions as well. After Akbar’s time, for example, portraits of the Mughal emperors showed them wearing halos like Western saints. Literature and Architecture Hindu literature also enjoyed a revival in Akbar’s time. Akbar established a large library. The poet Tulsi Das, for example, was a contemporary of Akbar’s. He retold the epic love story of Rama and Sita from the 4th-century b.c. Indian poem Ramayana (rah•MAH•yuh•nuh) in Hindi. This retelling, the Ramcaritmanas, is now even more popular than the original. Akbar devoted himself to architecture, too. The style developed under his reign is still known as Akbar period architecture. Its massive, but graceful, structures are decorated with intricate stonework that depicts Hindu themes. The capital city of Fatehpur Sikri is one of the most important examples of this type of architecture. Akbar had this red-sandstone city built to thank a holy man who had predicted the birth of his first son. It included a great mosque, many palaces and other houses, as well as official and religious buildings. This magnificent city was abandoned after only 15 years because its water supply ran out. Ironically, the son whose birth it honored eventually rebelled against his father. He may even have plotted to cause his father’s death. Akbar’s Successors With Akbar’s death in 1605, the Mughal court changed to deal with the changing times. The next three emperors were powerful men, and each left his mark on the Mughal Empire. Background In Hindu myth, Rama was the perfect king, one of the personalities of the protector god, Vishnu. Headgear had symbolic importance in the society of Hindus in India. An important person’s turban might include 50 yards of cloth wound around and held together with a jeweled pin such as this one. 451-457-0418s3 10/11/02 4:12 PM Page 453 Jahangir and Nur Jahan Akbar’s son called himself Jahangir (juh•hahn•GEER)—“Grasper of the World.” And he certainly did hold India in a powerful grasp. It was not his own hand in the iron glove, though, since Jahangir was an extremely weak ruler. For most of his reign, he left the affairs of state to his wife. Jahangir’s wife was the Persian princess Nur Jahan. She was a remarkably talented women with a variety of interests. Tiger hunting was among her favorite pastimes, and she rode horses with legendary skill. She composed poetry whenever the mood struck her. She also designed clothes that still influence Indian fashions. Above all, she was a brilliant politician who perfectly understood the use of power. As the real ruler of India from 1611 to 1622, she installed her father as prime minister in the Mughal court. She saw Jahangir’s son Khusrau as her ticket to future power. But when Khusrau rebelled against his father, Nur Jahan ousted him. She then shifted her favor to another son, the future emperor, Shah Jahan. This rejection of Khusrau affected more than the political future of the empire. It was also the basis of a long and bitter religious conflict. Both Nur Jahan and Jahangir rejected Akbar’s religious tolerance and tried to promote only Islam in the Mughal state. When Khusrau rebelled against his father, he turned to the Sikhs. This was a nonviolent religious group whose doctrines blended Buddhism, Hinduism, and Sufism (Islamic mysticism). Their leader, Guru Arjun, sheltered Khusrau and defended him. In response, the Mughal rulers had Arjun arrested and tortured to death. The Sikhs thus became the target of the Mughals’ particular hatred. Shah Jahan Like his grandfather, Shah Jahan was a cultured man. He could not tolerate competition, however, and secured his throne by assassinating all his possible rivals. But he did have a great passion for two things: beautiful buildings and his wife Mumtaz Mahal (moom•TAHZ mah•HAHL). Nur Jahan had arranged this marriage between Jahangir’s son and her niece for political reasons. Shah Jahan, however, fell genuinely in love with his Persian princess. In 1631, Mumtaz Mahal died at age 38 giving birth to her 14th child. “Empire has no sweetness,” the heartbroken Shah Jahan lamented, “life has no relish for me now.” To enshrine his wife’s memory, he ordered that a tomb be built “as beautiful as she was beautiful.” Fine white marble and fabulous jewels were gathered from many parts of Asia. Some 20,000 workers labored for 22 years to build the famous tomb now known as the Taj Mahal. This memorial has been called one of the most beautiful buildings in the world. Its towering marble dome and slender towers look like lace and seem to change color as the sun moves across the sky. The inside of the building is as magnificent as the exterior. It is a glittering garden of thousands of carved marble flowers inlaid with tiny precious stones. Shah Jahan also built the Red Fort at Delhi and completed the Peacock Throne, a priceless seat of gold encrusted with diamonds, rubies, emeralds, and pearls. The throne has a canopy that displays the figure of a peacock lined with blue sapphires. This magnificent throne was lost to the conqueror Nadir Shah in 1739. The People Suffer But while Shah Jahan was building lovely things, his country was suffering. A Dutch merchant who was in India during a famine at that time reported that “. . . men abandoned towns and villages and wandered helplessly . . . eyes sunk deep in head, lips pale and covered with slime, the skin hard, the bones showing through. . . .” Farmers needed tools, roads, and ways of irrigating their crops and dealing with India’s harsh environment. What they got instead were taxes and more taxes to support the building of monuments, their rulers’ extravagant living, and war. 454 Chapter 18 THINK THROUGH HISTORY B. Analyzing Causes How did the Mughals’ dislike of the Sikhs develop? B. Answer They sheltered and defended Jahangir’s son, who had rebelled against his father. Women Rulers Since World War II, India has seen the rise of several powerful women. Unlike Nur Jahan, however, they achieved power on their own—not through their husbands. Indira Gandhi headed the Congress-I Party and dominated Indian politics for almost 30 years. She was elected prime minister in 1966 and again in 1980. Gandhi was assassinated in 1984 by Sikh terrorists. In neighboring Pakistan, Benazir Bhutto (shown below), took charge of the Pakistan People’s Party after her father was executed by his political enemies. She won election as her country’s prime minister in 1988—the first woman to run a modern Muslim state. Pakistan’s president unseated her, but she was reelected in 1993. In 1996, however, the president again ousted her from office. The supreme court ruled that her government was corrupt. Ironically, that was partially because her husband had made corrupt business deals. CONNECT to TODAY Background Shortly after Shah Jahan spent huge sums of money on the Taj Mahal, King Louis XIV began building his elaborate palace at Versailles. Both rulers heavily taxed their people to pay for their extravagance. 451-457-0418s3 10/11/02 4:12 PM Page 454 The Muslim World Expands 455 All was not well in the royal court either. When Shah Jahan became ill in 1657, his four sons scrambled for the throne. The third son, Aurangzeb (AWR•uhng•zehb), moved first and most decisively. In a bitter civil war, he executed his older brother, who was his most serious rival. Then he arrested his father and put him in prison. When Shah Jahan died several years later, a mirror was found in his room, angled so that he could gaze from his cell at the reflection of the Taj Mahal. Aurangzeb, however, had his eyes on the empire. Aurangzeb Aurangzeb ruled from 1658 to 1707. He was a master at military strategy and an aggressive empire builder. Although he expanded the Mughal holdings to their greatest size, the power of the empire weakened during his reign. This loss of power was due largely to Aurangzeb’s oppression of the people. He rigidly enforced Islamic laws, outlawing drinking, gambling, and other vices. He also appointed censors to police his subjects’ morals and make sure they prayed at the appointed times. He also tried to erase all the gains Hindus had made under Akbar. For example, he brought back the hated tax on non-Muslims and dismissed Hindus from high positions in his government. He banned the construction of new temples and had Hindu monuments destroyed. Not surprisingly, these actions outraged the Hindus. The Hindu Rajputs, whom Akbar had converted from potential enemies to allies, rebelled. Aurangzeb defeated them repeatedly, but never completely. In the southwest, militant Hindus called Marathas founded their own breakaway state. Aurangzeb captured their leader, but the Marathas turned to guerrilla warfare. Aurangzeb could never conquer them. Meanwhile, the Sikhs had transformed themselves into a militant brotherhood. They began to build a state in the Punjab, an area in northwest India. Set in a formal garden and mirrored in a reflecting pool, the Taj Mahal draws tourists to Agra, southeast of New Delhi in India. It remains a monument to both love and the Mughal Empire. THINK THROUGH HISTORY C. Making Inferences Do you think Shah Jahan’s policies helped or harmed the Mughal Empire? C. Possible Answer Helped—Left lasting legacy of architecture. Harmed—Did not improve the hard lives of his people. 451-457-0418s3 10/11/02 4:12 PM Page 455 A person who does a good deed for the Mughal emperor may be rewarded with his weight in rupees (a unit of money). In fact, both the emperor’s flute player and his astrologer recently received this generous prize. Sources said that the stout astrologer pocketed 200 rupees more than the musician. Daily Life: India, 1620 Mughal Society News Diet News Moving Day Relocating the Mughal royal court requires as much effort as moving a small city. Simply transporting the royal tents requires 100 elephants, 500 camels, 400 carts, and 100 human bearers. When the procession stops for the night, it spans a length of 20 miles. Woman of the Week Naming Nur Jahan, the monarch’s favorite queen “Woman of the Week” is a king-size understatement. Woman of the century is more like it. But people in the know go even further and call her “Light of the World”—and for good reason. In addition to being the true power behind Jahangir’s throne, she excels in the arts, business, and sports. Nur Jahan’s bold, original designs for cloth, dresses with long trains, and even carpets dominate India’s fashion scene. From her harem, Nur Jahan runs a bustling trade in indigo and cloth. She’s also an accomplished huntress, and last week killed four tigers. The Doctor Is In When a woman of the Mughal court gets sick, she must not be seen by a male doctor. The doctor first wraps his head in a cashmere shawl, which serves as a blindfold. He follows a servant into the women’s quarters, where the patient lies hidden behind a curtain. If she needs to have a wound treated, the patient sticks her arm or leg out through the curtain. The doctor then examines the patient from his side of the curtain. If you’re trying to impress the emperor, bring him a unique gift. This is how he voted on recent offerings: Thumbs Up • walnut-sized ruby • portraits of English royal family • unusual fish Thumbs Down • faded velvet • mirror with loose frame • map showing a compressed view of India Making Inferences What can you conclude about the lives of women in the Mughal court? SEE SKILLBUILDER HANDBOOK, PAGE R16 Women’s Studies Using information from the “Connect to Today” feature on page 454 and the library or the Internet, research the public role of women in several Muslim cultures today. How has the role of women changed since Mughal times? Connect toToday Connect to History The Shopping Corner Nur Jahan is the power behind the throne and even designs the royal wardrobe. 451-457-0418s3 10/11/02 4:12 PM Page 456 2. TAKING NOTES Using a time line like the one below, indicate the effects each leader had on the Mughal Empire. Write positive effects above the line and negative effects below. Effects on Mughal Empire + – 3. COMPARING AND CONTRASTING In what ways was the golden age of Akbar similar to and different from the flowering of the Safavid Empire under Shah Abbas and of the Ottoman Empire under Suleiman I? THINK ABOUT • the rulers’ cultural and military achievements • their tolerance of other cultures • their successors 4. ANALYZING THEMES Power and Authority Do you think Shah Jahan made good use of his power and authority? Why or why not? THINK ABOUT • how Shah Jahan came to power • the beautiful buildings he built • conditions in India during his reign 1. TERMS & NAMES Identify • Mughal • Babur • Akbar • Jahangir • Nur Jahan • Sikh • Shah Jahan • Taj Mahal • Aurangzeb Section 3 Assessment The Muslim World Expands 457 Aurangzeb had to levy oppressive taxes to pay for the wars against these increasing numbers of enemies. He had done away with all taxes not authorized by Islamic law, so he doubled the taxes on Hindu merchants. This increased tax burden deepened the Hindus’ bitterness and led to further rebellion. As a result, Aurangzeb needed to raise more money to increase his army. The more territory he conquered, the more desperate his situation became. The Empire’s Decline and Decay By the end of Aurangzeb’s reign, he had drained the empire of its resources. Most of his subjects felt little or no loyalty to him. According to a Dutch observer, “The condition of the common people in India is very miserable. . . . Their huts are low, built generally of mud . . . their bedding is scanty and thin . . . of little use when the weather is bitterly cold. . . . The nobles live in indescribable luxury and extravagance, caring only to indulge themselves whilst they can in every kind of pleasure.” Over two million people died in a famine while Aurangzeb was away waging war. As the power of the central state weakened, the power of local lords grew. After Aurangzeb’s death, his sons fought a war of succession. Bahadur, who won the war, was over 60 when he gained the throne. This exhausted emperor did not last long. In fact, three emperors reigned in the 12 years after Aurengzeb died. By the end of this period, the Mughal emperor was nothing but a wealthy figurehead. He ruled not a united empire but a patchwork of independent states. As the Mughal Empire was rising and falling and creating its cultural legacy, Western traders were slowly building their own power. The Portuguese were the first Europeans to reach India. In fact, they arrived just before Babur did. But they were ousted by the Dutch, who, in turn, gave way to the French and the English. The great Mughal emperors did not feel threatened by the European traders. Shah Jahan let the English build a fortified trading post at Madras. In 1661, Aurangzeb casually handed them the port of Bombay. Aurangzeb had no idea that he had given India’s next conquerors their first foothold in a future empire. Perhaps to offset their excessive spending, the Mughal rulers were weighed once a year. They donated their weight in gold and silver to the people. Here, Jahangir weighs Prince Khurran. THINK THROUGH HISTORY D. Recognizing Effects How did Aurangzeb’s personal qualities and political policies affect the Mughal Empire? D. Answer He depleted the empire’s resources and began the weakening of central power that led to its ruin. Babur Shah Jahan Jahangir/ Nur Jahan Akbar Aurangzeb 451-457-0418s3 10/11/02 4:12 PM Page 457
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