If All These Scientific Physical Evidences Are True....Then, There shouldnt Be a contagious Debate....GOD IS A BLACK MAN...... An Over View of Genetic Genealogy and Evolution In order not to miss anything of importance the starting point of this description almost has to start at the Big Bang 13.75 billion years ago and the expansion of the Universe after which the first elements were assembled from the sub-atomic particles in the first few seconds. These were the atoms and molecules of deuterium, hydrogen, helium and lithium which are the simplest and the lightest. A gravitational instability created the first stars about 100 million years later. The first galaxies were formed about at about 500 million years and our Milky Way galaxy at 550 million years after the big Bang. These first stars were 10 to100 times the mass of the Sun and only lived a few million years fusing hydrogen into Helium and then collapsing into Black Holes or exploding as brilliant supernovae manufacturing the heavy elements and ejecting this material back into interstellar space to mix and to form a second generation of stars which seeded the universe with the basic building blocks the the sun, a third generation star, and the Solar System about 4.54 billion years ago. When the earth cooled the water that was brought here by comets and asteroids formed a brine solution that contained the many different compounds found today. Carbon atoms formed long chains called amino acids the building blocks of life. These molecules started to replicate and combine into more and more complex units and when these replicating units established a state of metabolism and life on Earth began. These life forms remained small and microscopic for at least a billion years. Later these units were able to form a membrane and the cell came into existence. Modern oxygenic photosynthesis had probably developed by about 3.5 billion years ago with aquatic Cyanobacteria. Complex multicellular life arose about 580 million years ago and during the Cambrian period, about 542 to 488.3, million years ago it experienced a rapid diversification into most major phyla. In the eukaryotic cells a membrane-enclosed organelle formed called mitochondria (mtDNA). It convert food into a form of energy that cells can use called adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Also a long chain molecule formed that is called deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) located in the nucleus of the cell. Algal probably formed on land about 1.2 billion years ago. About 450 million years ago the first land plants appeared and quickly diversified and further enriched the atmosphere with oxygen setting the stage for oxygen dependent animals to develop in the oceans and providing food for an animal invasion. The first verified land animal was a myriapod about 428 million years ago. Then about 375 million years ago an animal intermediate between a fish and the first four legged land animals walked out of water onto land. The first Primates appeared after the dinosaurs had become extinct some 60 million years ago. About this time the Spider monkey diverged from a common ancestor of all other primates. It must be remembered that many different lines diverged but most would go extinct. Nineteen million years ago the Gibbon spectated followed by the Orangutan 16 million years ago who is 97.4% genetically related to the humans, then the Gorilla nine million years ago. The humans and Chimpanzee diverged before 6.3 million years ago after which there may have been a period of hybridization. The complete specialization occurred after this time with the humans having 46 chromosomes and the Chimpanzee with 48. It is believed that the 12th and 13th chromosome of their ancestor combined into the 2nd chromosome in the humans. The difference in the protein coding genes of humans and the Chimpanzees is only about 1%. However the difference in the non coding part of the genome is about 5%. It is this non coding part of the genome that is used for Genealogical purposes. The Bonobos diverged from the Chimpanzees just one-to-two million years ago. Therefore our closet living species is the chimpanzee. The chimpanzee is closer related to humans then they are to the gorillas. The genus Homo evolved by about 2.3 to 2.4 million years ago from Australopithecus a hominid. Today all hominid species other than Homo sapiens are extinct.The first evidence of our modern genus was named Homo habilis which lived from approximately 2.3 to 1.4 million years ago. Homo habilis co-existed with other Homo-like bipedal primates and in May 2010, H. gautengensis was discovered, a species believed to be even older than H. habilis that existed in southern Africa about two million years ago until 600,000 years ago. Homo habilis has often been thought to be the ancestor of the more sophisticated Homo egaster which in turn gave rise to the more human-appearing species Homo erectus however this subject is still open to study. The Replacement Model The first humans to leave Africa, 1,950,00 years ago, were the Homo ergasters. Some think that they may have been two different sister species, Homo erectus and Homo halbilis. They coexisted for 450,00 years with Homo erectus surviving in Asia and dominating the world for nearly a million years. Then Homo rhodesiensis left Africa about a million years ago with the Acheulian culture. Then about 250,000 to 300,000 years ago, a time when there were no Neanderthals or humans, Homo helmei spread out of Africa to cover Eurasia and may have been the progenitor of Homo neanderthalensis in Eurasia as well as modern man in Africa. Homo sapiens are believed to have evolved over 195,000 years ago during a near extinction of the Homo lines in Africa. Studies show that both the mitochondrial and Y chromosome trees first branch out about 144,000 years ago. Albinism Albinism (from Latin albus, white; see extended etymology, also called achromia, achromasia, or achromatosis) is a congenital disorder characterized by the complete or partial absence of pigment in the skin, hair and eyes due to absence or defect of tyrosinase, a copper-containing enzyme involved in the production of melanin. It is the opposite of melanism. Albinism results from inheritance of recessive gene alleles and is known to affect all vertebrates, including humans. While an organism with complete absence of melanin is called an albino (UK /ælˈbiːnoʊ/,[1] or US /ælˈbaɪnoʊ/)[2] an organism with only a diminished amount of melanin is described as albinoid.[3] Albinism is associated with a number of vision defects, such as photophobia, nystagmus and astigmatism. Lack of skin pigmentation makes for more susceptibility to sunburn and skin cancers. In rare cases such as Chédiak–Higashi syndrome, albinism may be associated with deficiencies in the transportation of melanin granules. This also affects essential granules present in immune cells leading to increased susceptibility to infection Signs and symptoms In humans, there are two principal types of albinism, oculocutaneous, affecting the eyes, skin and hair, and ocular affecting the eyes only. Most people with oculocutaneous albinism appear white or very pale as the melanin pigments responsible for brown, black, and some yellow colorations are not present. Ocular albinism results in light blue eyes,[5] and may require genetic testing to diagnose. Because individuals with albinism have skin that entirely lacks the dark pigment melanin, which helps protect the skin from the suns ultraviolet radiation, their skin can burn more easily from overexposure.[6] The human eye normally produces enough pigment to color the iris blue, green or brown and lend opacity to the eye. In photographs, those with albinism are more likely to demonstrate red eye, due to the red of retina being visible through the iris. Lack of pigment in the eyes also results in problems with vision, both related and unrelated to photosensitivity. Those afflicted with albinism are generally as healthy as the rest of the population (but see related disorders below), with growth and development occurring as normal, and albinism by itself does not cause mortality,[7] although the lack of pigment blocking ultraviolet radiation increases the risk of melanomas (skins cancers) and other problems. Visual problems Development of the optical system is highly dependent on the presence of melanin, and the reduction or absence of this pigment in sufferers of albinism may lead to: • Misrouting of the retinogeniculate projections, resulting in abnormal decussation (crossing) of optic nerve fibres[6] • Photophobia and decreased visual acuity due to light scattering within the eye (ocular straylight)[6][8] • Reduced visual acuity due to foveal hypoplasia and possibly light-induced retinal damage[6] Eye conditions common in albinism include: • Nystagmus, irregular rapid movement of the eyes back and forth, or in circular motion.[6] • Astigmatism, irregular shaped cornea requiring additional cylindrical corrective lenses in spectacles.[9] • Amblyopia, decrease in acuity of one or both eyes due to poor transmission to the brain, often due to other conditions such as strabismus.[6] • Optic nerve hypoplasia, underdevelopment of the optic nerve Some of the visual problems associated with albinism arise from a poorly developed retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) due to the lack of melanin.[citation needed] This degenerate RPE causes foveal hypoplasia (a failure in the development of normal foveae), which results in eccentric fixation and lower visual acuity, and often a minor level of strabismus. Mutation In genetics, a mutation is a permanent change of the nucleotide sequence of the genome of an organism, virus, or extrachromosomal genetic element. Mutations result from unrepaired damage to DNA or to RNA genomes (typically caused by radiation or chemical mutagens), errors in the process of replication, or from the insertion or deletion of segments of DNA by mobile genetic elements.[1][2][3] Mutations may or may not produce discernible changes in the observable characteristics (phenotype) of an organism. Mutations play a part in both normal and abnormal biological processes including: evolution, cancer, and the development of the immune system. Description Mutations can involve the duplication of large sections of DNA, usually through genetic recombination.[5] These duplications are a major source of raw material for evolving new genes, with tens to hundreds of genes duplicated in animal genomes every million years.[6] Most genes belong to larger families of genes of shared ancestry.[ What is a gene mutation and how do mutations occur? A gene mutation is a permanent change in the DNA sequence that makes up a gene. Mutations range in size from a single DNA building block (DNA base) to a large segment of a chromosome. Gene mutations occur in two ways: they can be inherited from a parent or acquired during a person’s lifetime. Mutations that are passed from parent to child are called hereditary mutations or germline mutations (because they are present in the egg and sperm cells, which are also called germ cells). This type of mutation is present throughout a person’s life in virtually every cell in the body. Mutations that occur only in an egg or sperm cell, or those that occur just after fertilization, are called new (de novo) mutations. De novo mutations may explain genetic disorders in which an affected child has a mutation in every cell, but has no family history of the disorder. Acquired (or somatic) mutations occur in the DNA of individual cells at some time during a person’s life. These changes can be caused by environmental factors such as ultraviolet radiation from the sun, or can occur if a mistake is made as DNA copies itself during cell division. Acquired mutations in somatic cells (cells other than sperm and egg cells) cannot be passed on to the next generation. Mutations may also occur in a single cell within an early embryo. As all the cells divide during growth and development, the individual will have some cells with the mutation and some cells without the genetic change. This situation is called mosaicism. Some genetic changes are very rare; others are common in the population. Genetic changes that occur in more than 1 percent of the population are called polymorphisms. They are common enough to be considered a normal variation in the DNA. Polymorphisms are responsible for many of the normal differences between people such as eye color, hair color, and blood type. Although many polymorphisms have no negative effects on a person’s health, some of these variations may influence the risk of developing certain disorders. OCA2 P protein, also known as melanocyte-specific transporter protein or pink-eyed dilution protein homolog, is a protein that in humans is encoded by the oculocutaneous albinism II (OCA2) gene.[1] The P protein is believed to be an integral membrane protein involved in small molecule transport, specifically tyrosine - a precursor of melanin. Certain mutations in OCA2 result in type 2 oculocutaneous albinism.[1] OCA2 encodes the human homologue of the mouse p (pink-eyed dilution) gene. The human OCA2 gene is located on the long arm (q) of chromosome 15, specifically from base pair 28,000,020 to base pair 28,344,457 on chromosome 15. Function OCA2 provides instructions for making the protein called P protein which is located in melanocytes which are specialized cells that produce melanin. Melanin is responsible for giving color to the skin, hair, and eyes. Moreover, melanin is found in the light-sensitive tissue of the retina of the eye which plays a role in normal vision. Clinical significance Mutations in the OCA2 gene cause a disruption in the normal production of melanin; therefore, causing vision problems and reductions in hair, skin, and eye color. Oculocutaneous albinism caused by mutations in the OCA2 gene is called oculocutaneous albinism type 2. The prevalence of The prevalence of OCA type 2 is estimated at 1/38,000-1/40,000 in most populations throughout the world, with a higher prevalence in the African population of 1/3,900-1/1,500.[2] Other diseases associated with the deletion of OCA2 gene are Angelman syndrome (light-colored hair and fair skin) and Prader-Willi syndrome (unusually light-colored hair and fair skin). With both these syndromes, the deletion often occurs in individuals with either syndrome Early human migrations Early human migration began when the pre-modern Homo erectus first migrated out of Africa over the Levantine corridor and Horn of Africa to Eurasia about 1.8 million years ago. The expansion of H. erectus out of Africa was followed by that of H. antecessor into Europe around 800,000 years ago, followed by H. heidelbergensis around 600,000 years ago, who was the likely ancestor of both Modern Humans and Neanderthals.[1] The ancestors of the human species H. sapiens evolved into Modern Humans (i.e. our current day subspecies H. sapiens sapiens) around 200,000 years ago, in Africa. Migrations out of Africa occurred some time later. Around 125,000 years ago Modern Humans reached the Near East from where they later spread across Asia and Europe.[2] From the Near East, these populations spread east to South Asia by 50,000 years ago, and on to Australia by 40,000 years ago,[3] when for the first time H. sapiens reached territory never reached by H. erectus. H. sapiens reached Europe around 43,000 years ago,[4] eventually replacing the Neanderthal population. East Asia was reached by 30,000 years ago. The date of migration to North America is disputed; it may have taken place around 30 thousand years ago, or considerably later, around 14 thousand years ago. Nonetheless, on October 3, 2014, the Oregon cave, where the oldest DNA evidence of human habitation in North America was found, was added to the National Register of Historic Places. The DNA, radiocarbon dated to 14,300 years ago, was found in fossilized human coprolites uncovered in the Paisley Five Mile Point Caves in south-central Oregon Early humans (before Homo sapiens) Early members of the Homo genus, i.e. Homo ergaster, Homo erectus and Homo heidelbergensis, migrated from Africa during the Early Pleistocene, possibly as a result of the operation of the Saharan pump, around 1.9 million years ago, and dispersed throughout most of the Old World, reaching as far as Southeast Asia. The date of original dispersal beyond Africa virtually coincides with the appearance of Homo ergaster in the fossil record, and the associated first emergence of full bipedalism, and about half a million years after the appearance of the Homo genus itself and the first stone tools of the Oldowan industry Homo sapiens migrations Homo sapiens are supposed to have appeared in East Africa around 200,000 years ago. The oldest individuals found left their marks in the Omo remains (195,000 years ago) and the Homo sapiens idaltu (160,000 years ago), that was found at the Middle Awash site in Ethiopia.[13] From there they spread around the world. An exodus from Africa over the Arabian Peninsula around 125,000 years ago brought modern humans to Eurasia, with one group rapidly settling coastal areas around the Indian Ocean and one group migrating north to steppes of Central Asia. Exodus from Africa There is some evidence for the argument that modern humans left Africa at least 125,000 years before present (BP) using two different routes: the Nile Valley heading to the Middle East, at least into modern Israel (Qafzeh: 120,000–100,000 years BP); and a second one through the present-day Bab-el-Mandeb Strait on the Red Sea (at that time, with a much lower sea level and narrower extension), crossing it into the Arabian Peninsula, settling in places like the present-day United Arab Emirates (125,000 years BP)[17] and Oman (106,000 years BP)[18] and then possibly going into the Indian Subcontinent (Jwalapuram: 75,000 years BP). Despite the fact that no human remains have yet been found in these three places, the apparent similarities between the stone tools found at Jebel Faya, the ones from Jwalapuram and some African ones suggest that their creators were all modern humans.[19] These findings might give some support to the claim that modern humans from Africa arrived at southern China about 100,000 years BP (Zhiren Cave, Zhirendong, Chongzuo City: 100,000 years BP;[20] and the Liujiang hominid: controversially dated at 139,000–111,000 years BP South Asia and Australia Some genetic evidence points to migrations out of Africa along two routes. However, other studies suggest that a single migration occurred, followed by rapid northern migration of a subset of the group. Once in West Asia, the people who remained south (or took the southern route) spread generation by generation around the coast of Arabia and Persia until they reached India. One of the groups that went north (east Asians were the second group) ventured inland[24] and radiated to Europe, eventually displacing the Neanderthals. They also radiated to India from Central Asia. The former group headed along the southeast coast of Asia, reaching Australia between 55,000 and 30,000 years ago,[3] with most estimates placing it about 46,000 to 41,000 years ago. Some new evidence show that the migration from Africa to Southeast Asia and Australia might occurred before 60,000 years ago. The migration routes from Africa to Southeast Asia were rather multiple and along the way of migration, the H. sapiens interbred with other species like Neanderthals, Denisovans and Homo erectus Europe Europe is thought to have been colonized by northwest bound migrants from Central Asia and the Middle East.[citation needed] When the first anatomically modern humans entered Europe, Neanderthals were already settled there. Debate exists whether modern human populations interbred with Neanderthal populations, most of the evidence suggesting that it happened to a small degree rather than complete absorption. Populations of modern man and Neanderthal overlapped in various regions such as in Iberian peninsula and in the Middle East and that interbreeding may have contributed Neanderthal genes to palaeolithic and ultimately modern Eurasians and Oceanians. An important difference between Europe and other parts of the inhabited world was the northern latitude. Archaeological evidence suggests humans, whether Neanderthal or Cro-Magnon, reached sites in Arctic Russia by 40,000 years ago.[33] Around 20,000 BC, 10,000 years after the Neanderthal extinction, the Last Glacial Maximum took place forcing northern hemisphere inhabitants to migrate to several shelters (known as refugia) until the end of this period. The resulting populations, whether interbred with Neanderthals or not, are then presumed to have resided in those hypothetical refuges during the LGM to ultimately reoccupy Europe where archaic historical populations are considered their descendents.By Dj western Da Incredible...SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY @10:00AM-11:00AM ON 88.3 & 95.8 ENDIGYITO RADIO....MON-FRI.
Posted on: Mon, 17 Nov 2014 06:47:56 +0000
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