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MUAWIYAH BIN ABU SUFYAN (Part 1) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Muawiyah I (Arabic: معاوية ابن أبي سفيان Muʿāwiyah ibn ʾAbī Sufyān; 602 – April 29 or May 1, 680) established the Umayyad Dynasty of the caliphate,[1][2] and was the second caliph from the Umayyad clan.[3] Muawiyah became a secretary for Muhammad, and during the first and second caliphates of Abu Bakr and Umar (Umar ibn al-Khattab), fought with the Muslims against the Byzantines in Syria. Muawiyah was politically adept in dealing with the Eastern Roman Empire and was therefore made into a secretary by Muhammad.[4][5] To stop the Byzantine harassment from the sea, Muawiyah developed a navy in the Levant and used it to confront the Byzantine Empire in the Aegean Sea and the Sea of Marmara. The Caliphate conquered several territories including Cyzicus which were subsequently used as naval bases.[6] EARLY LIFE AND FAMILY Muawiyah bin Abi-Sufyan was born in Mecca[7] to Abu Sufyan ibn Harb and Hind bint Utbah (601 CE) into the Banu Umayya sub-clan of the Banu Abd-Shams clan of the Quraysh tribe. The Quraysh controlled the city of Mecca (in the west of present-day Saudi Arabia) and the Banu Abd-Shams were among the most influential of its citizens.[8] Muawiyah, Muhammad and Ali shared the same great-great grandfather Abdu Manaf bin Qusay, who had four sons: Hashim, Muttalib, Nawfal, and Abdu Shams. Hashim was the great grandfather of Ali and Muhammad. Umayyah bin Abdu Shams was the great grandfather of Muawiyah.[9] Muawiyahs sister Ramla bint Abi Sufyan was one of the first converts to Islam.[10] In order to avoid hostilities from Quraish, she and her husband Ubayd-Allah ibn Jahsh emigrated to Abyssinia(Ethiopia. Her husband, later, converted to Christianity.[10] He tried to persuade her to do the same, but she held on to Islam. His conversion led to their divorce. She continued to live in Abyssinia with her daughter until Ubayd-Allahs death sometime later.[10] She was later married to Muhammad. Khalid ibn Said was chosen by her as her legal guardian at the ceremony. The Negus the king of Abbysian read out the Khutba himself, and Khalid ibn Said made a speech in reply. On behalf of Muhammad, the Negus offered a dowry of four hundred Dinars. A huge wedding feast was given on behalf of Muhammad after the ceremony. The Negus also sent musk and ambergris to the bride through Abraha.[10] Muhammad did not give a dowry larger than this to any of his other wives. Muawiyah and remaining members of his family were opponents of the Muslims before the ascendancy of Muhammad. Along with his two older brothers Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan and Utbah, Muawiyah was one of the members of the hunting party of his maternal uncle Waleed bin Utbah that pursued Muhammad during the hijra (migration), when Muhammad and Abu Bakr were hiding in Ghar al-Thawr (Cave of the Bull).[11] In 630, Muhammad and his followers conquered Mecca, and most of the Meccans, including the Abd-Shams clan, formally submitted to Muhammad and accepted Islam. Muawiyah, along with his father Abu Sufyan ibn Harb, became Muslims at the conquest of Mecca.[12][13] According to Encyclopedia of Islam, Muawiyah was a crypto Muslim after the treaty of Treaty of Hudaybiyyah but his not declare it [14] After the conquest of Mecca by the Muslims, Muawiyahs family converted to Islam. Muawiyah and the Islamic prophet Muhammad were brothers-in-law after Muhammad married Muawiyahs sister, Ramla bint Abi Sufyan. `Abd Manaf ibn Qusai Abd Shams Hashim ibn Abd Manaf Umayya Abdul Mutallib Abul-As Harb `Abd Allah Abu Talib `Abbas (Abbasids) Safiya Affan Hakam Abu Sufyan Muhammad Ali `Abd Allah ibn `Abbas Zubayr ibn al-Awam Uthman ibn Affan Marwan I Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan Muawiyah I Hasan ibn Ali Hussein ibn Ali Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr also Abu Bakrs grandson Yazid I (Yazid ibn Muawiyah) [15] APPEARANCE Ibn Katheer wrote in his book the Al-Bidayah wan-Nihayah: In terms of his appearance, he was fair and tall, bald with a white head and he had a beard that he used to colour with henna. He was mild-tempered, dignified, dominant and noble amongst the people, generous, just and astute. [16] DURING THE TIME OF MUHAMMAD Muawiyah worked as a scribe for Muhammad. According to al-Baladhuri, Urwa ibn az-Zubayr, relating from his father, Aisha said I went to the Prophet, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, who was in a room with Umm Habiba (Muawiyahs sister and Muhammads wife) on her day. Muawiya knocked on the door and he gave him permission to enter, which he did. He had a pen behind his ear which he had not used. The Prophet said, What is this on your ear? He said, A pen which I have made ready for Allah and His Messenger. The Prophet said. May Allah repay you well on behalf of your Prophet! By Allah, I will only ask you to write down revelation from heaven [17][18][19] According to Ibn Katheer in his book the Al-Bidayah wan-Nihayah, Ibn Abbas said that Abu Sufyan asked Muhammad if he could make his son Muawiyah a scribe which Muhammad granted. Therefore Muawiyah became his scribe [20] During the time of Muhammad, Abu Bakr and Umar, Muawiyah was restricted. Background of the Roman-Persian Wars before Islam The Roman-Persian Wars and the Byzantine–Sasanian wars had occurred every few years for hundreds of years between 69 BC and 629 AD. High taxes were imposed on the populations in both the Byzantine Roman and Sassanid Persian empires to finance these wars. There was also continuous bloodshed of the people during these wars. The Arab tribes in Iraq were paid by the Persian Sassanids to act as mercenaries, and the Arab tribes in Syria were paid by the Byzantine Empire to act as their mercenaries. The Persians maintained an Arab satellite state of Lakhm and the Byzantine Empire maintained the Arab satellite state of Ghassan which they used to fight each other.[21] Before Islam, the Syrians and the Iraqis had been fighting each other for centuries. Therefore later, each wanted the capital of the newly established Islamic State to be in their area.[22] Later others like the Lakhm Arabs, many of whom became the Qurra, also wanted to rule Persia. There were also many Christian sects along the fringes of the desert. The Nestorian Christians were persecuted and driven out of the Roman Empire and were welcomed by the Persians as victims of the Byzantines, whom the Persians regarded as their enemies. There were also the Monophysite Christians who were condemned as heretical by the Orthodox Church and bitterly opposed by the Nestorians. Muawiyah knew about these differences.[23] Just 23 years prior to the Muslim conquest of Syria and Jerusalem, in 613, the Jewish revolt against the Byzantine Heraclius culminated with the conquest of Jerusalem in 614 byPersian and Jewish forces and establishment of Jewish autonomy. Under Shahrbaraz during the last of the Byzantine–Sassanian wars, the Persian Empire took Jerusalem. The Persians looted the city, and they are said to have massacred its 90,000 Christian inhabitants.[24] The revolt ended with the departure of the Persians and an eventual massacre of the Jews in 629 by the Byzantine Greeks, ending 15 years of Jewish autonomy. UNDER ABU BAKR During the time of Under Abu Bakr, Muawiyah used to serve under his brother Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan (Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan is not to be confused with Yazid ibn Muawiya who was the caliph during the period in which Hussain was martyred). Muawiyah was one of the first to be sent into Syria.[25][26][27][28] According to Al-Imam al-Waqidi the first Muslim historian on the events, Muawiyahs brother Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan was the first commander with 1,000 horsemen sent to Syria and Palestine by Abu Bakr.[29] Rabi ah bin Amir of Banu Amir tribe was also sent with them him with another 1,000 horsemen and was under Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan command. The account of Al-Imam al-Waqidi from Madina, is the earliest Muslim account of the events and it closely matches the account of the Roman authors of the time. Abu Bakrs instructions to Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan and his men including Muawiyah were: When you leave a place do not cause them difficulty in marching. Do not punish your men harshly. Consult them on every matter. Do not abandon justice and stay far from in justice and tyranny because no tyrant nation has every obtained success. Do not slay any small child, old people, women or pre-adolescent. Do not approach the harvests of the trees. Crops should not be burnt nor fruit trees cut. Do not slaughter any animals which is impermissible. Do not break any agreement which you make with the enemy and after peace do not tear up your treaties. Remember that you will also meet such people who have undertaken monasticism in their monasteries, thinking this to be for the sake of Allah. Do not interfere with them and do not destroy their monasteries and do not kill them. [30] They could confront the Roman armies but not the civilians.[31] Taxes could be charged for policing, but the people in Syria could have their own representatives and their own laws. The speech was based on the Constitution of Medina. In the best selling book, In the shadow of the sword, The Battle for Global Empire and the End of the Ancient World, Tom Holland writes [32] The Constitution of Medina is accepted by even the most suspicious of scholars as deriving from the time of Muhammad. Here in these precious documents, it is possible to glimpse the authentic beginnings of a movement that would succeed, in barely two decades, in prostrating both the Roman and the Persian Empires. That the Prophet consciously aimed at state-building; that it was his ambition to forge his own people and the rest of the tribes into a single Umma (community); that this confederation was to fight in the path of God; these brief details, the veritable building blocks are rock solid.[33] Muawiyah would later have to abide by the same conditions when he became the governor of Syria. As Abu Bakr was assembling the various tribes in Madina the Christian Arabs living in Madina gave intelligence to the Roman Emperor Heraclius.[34] The Roman military and Heraclius then assembled a force of 8000 cavalry men and appointing Batlic, his brother Serius; Chief of police Luke son of Samuel and the governor of Ghazzah and Ascalon, Salya.[35] As soon as Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan reached the desert on the out skirts of Madina, their Arab race horses picked up speed. Rabi ah bin Amir asked why are you doing this, Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan replied more bands will be sent after me. Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan then crossed into the Negev near Gaza.[36] Sergius was sent by the Romans to show them the brute facts of Roman might.[29][37] The Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan devised a cunning plan. Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan ordered Rabi ah bin Amir to hide in ambush with 1000 horse men while he him self led 1000 horsemen to face the Romans and draw then into rows. When the Romans arrived, on seeing Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan small force they thought this to be the entire Arab force and attacked. Rabiah them emerged with his men riding their fast Arab horses and ambushed Sergius troops on the afternoon of 4 February, some twelve miles east of Gaza.[38][39] Tom Holland says that the specific time and date is derived from a notice in a Syrian chronicle written sometime around the year 640 and which in turn seems to draw on a near-contemporary record. Al-Imam al-Waqidis account also extremely detailed and exactly matches the Roman account of the events.[29][40][39] The result was an utter debacle for the Romans at the Battle of Tabuk.[29][41] The Romans were used to paying off the Arab tribes that lived in Syria.[42] So Sergius asked Rabiah come and work for us. We will pay you to attack the Persians.[29] But things had changed in Arabia and these people were different. Rabiah refused. Heraclius was furious and then organized an army of 100,000 men. According to Al-Imam al-Waqidi the first Muslim historian on the events Abu Bakr then appointed Muawiyahs friend Amr ibn al-As to lead the next band of 9,000 men and they left for Palestine.[43] Tom Holland in his book The shadow of the sword, The Battle for Global Empire and the End of the Ancient World writes With intense cunning the Arabs then launched a pincer movement against the Roman army. The second band then crossed the eastern frontier even as first one was in Gaza.[44] When they arrived in Palestine Amrs say his friend Amir bin Adi returning from Palestine after visiting his family. Amir bin Adi told him there was a Roman Army 100,000 strong behind him that had been sent to confront him.[45] Amr ibn al-As then sent Abdullah ibn Umar with 1000 horsemen to gather intelligence on the Roman Army.[46] They saw a Roman Reconnaissance of according to Abdullah ibn Umar of 10,000 horsemen and took them on.[47] Then returned to Amr ibn al-As. They Amr ibn al-Aswith Abdullah ibn Umar took on another group. Abu Bakr then sent Abu Ubaydah towards Syria, slowly encircling the Roman armies.[48] As news of the huge army Heraclius was assembling reached Abu Bakr, Abu Bakr then sent a letter to Khalid ibn al-Walid who was close to defeating the Persian Empire at Qadisiyah. Emperor Heraclius had sent all his available garrisoned troops into Syria, towardsAjnadayn, to hold the Muslim troops at the Syria-Arabia border region. The possible route of any Muslim reinforcement was expected to be the conventional Syria-Arabia road in the south, but Khalid, who was then in Iraq, took the most unexpected route: marching through the waterless Syrian desert, to the surprise of the Byzantines, he appeared in northern Syria. Catching the Byzantines off guard, he quickly captured several towns, virtually cutting off the communications of the Byzantine army at Ajnadayn with its high command atEmesa, where emperor Heraclius himself resided. Battle of Yarmouk In May 636, Emperor Heraclius launched a major expedition against the Muslims, but his army was defeated decisively at the Battle of Yarmouk in August 636.[49] Heraclius had put together a force of 200,000 men against the 24,000 Muslims.[50][51][52] The Christians and Jews preferred Moslem rule.[49] Heraclius had put together a force of 200,000 men against the 24,000 Muslims.[50][53][54] Abu-Hafs ad-Dimashki from Said ibn-Abd-al-Aziz: When Heraclius massed his troops against the Moslems and the Moslems heard that they were coming to meet them at al-Yarmuk, the Moslems refunded to the inhabitants the taxes they had taken from them saying, We are too busy to support and protect you. Take care of yourselves. But the people of Hims replied, We like your rule and justice far better than the state of oppression and tyranny in which we were. The army of Heraclius we shall indeed, with your amils help, repulse from the city. The Jews rose and said, We swear by the Torah, no governor of Heraclius shall enter the city of Hims unless we are first vanquished and exhausted! Saving this, they closed the gates of the city and guarded them. The inhabitants of the other cities - Christian and Jew - that had capitulated to the Moslems, did the same, saying, If Heraclius and his followers win over the Moslems we would return to our previous condition, otherwise we shall retain our present state so long as numbers are with the Moslems. When by Allahs help Heraclius was defeated and the Moslems won, they opened the gates of their cities, went out with the singers and music players who began to play, and paid the taxes.[55][56] The Battle of Yarmouk is regarded as one of the most decisive battles in military history where the Muslims were hugely out numbered by the Romans but with the help of the women and the young boys amongst them, finished off the Roman Empire.[57][58] The battle is also considered to be one of Khalid ibn al-Walids greatest military victories. It cemented his reputation as one of the greatest tacticians and cavalry commanders in history.[59] In the Battle of Yarmouk Muawiyahs brother Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan served under Khalid bin al-Waleed and Abu Ubaydah and was in command of one of the wings and Muawiyah was his second in command. Muawiyahs mother Hind also took part in the battle [49] Al-Waqidi books, along with other early history books like al-Baladhuri illustrate the hugely important role early Muslim women played in society. They show how women like Hind bint Utbah [60][61][62][63][64][65] the mother of Muawiyah and Asmā bint Abu Bakr,[66] Abu Bakrs daughter were instrumental in the Battle of Yarmouk. Hugely out numbered, every time the men ran away the women fought fearing that if they lost, the Romans will enslave them. Under desperate circumstances and heavily outnumbered ever time the men would flee, the women would sing: [67] O you who flee from his loyal lady She is beautiful and stands firmly Your abandoning them to the Romans to let them the forelocks and girls seize They will take what they want from us to the full [68] And start fighting them selves. Hind sang the same song she sang when she found against the Muslims in the battle of Uhud: [69] Night stars daughters are we Who walk on carpets soft they be Our walk does friendliness tell Our hands are perfumed musk smell Pearls are strung around these necks of us So come and embrace us Whoever refuses will be separated forever To defend his women is there no noble lover? [70] After seeing the women fight the men would return and said to each other If we do not fight then we are more entitled to sit in the womens quarter than the women.[71] Muawiyahs father Abu Sufyan also took part and Abu Sufyan lost his sight.[72] At one point when arrows started raining down on Abu Sufyan and he tried to turn his horse away and Hend struck his horse in the face with a tent-peg and said Where do you think your going, O Sakhr? Go back to battle and put effort into it until you compensate for having incited people in the past against Muhammad. An arrow later hit Muawiyahs father Abu Sufyan in the eye and he went blind [73] The defeat of the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius at the Battle of Yarmouk opened the way for the Muslim expansion into Jerusalem. The Muslim troops besieged the city of Jerusalem some time in November 636. Instead of relentless assaults on the city, they decided to press on with the siege until the Byzantines ran short of supplies and a bloodless surrender could be negotiated.[74] Although details of the siege were not recorded, it appeared to be bloodless.[75] After a siege of four months, Sophronius offered to surrender the city.[76] Following the Muslim conquest of Jerusalem, Jews were once again allowed to live and practice their religion with more freedom in Jerusalem, 8 years after their massacre by the Byzantines. Following the Roman–Persian Wars which occurred every few years for hundreds of years between 69 BC and 629 AD and the high taxes imposed to finance these wars and the continuous bloodshed the people of Jerusalem and Syrian accepted the Muslims. Muawiyah was also present when the treaty was signed for the Muslims to enter Jerusalem [77][78] GOVERNOR OF SYRIA AND ORGANIZATIONAL AND DIPLOMATIC SKILLS WITH THE ROMANS In 639, Muawiyah was appointed as the governor of Syria by the second caliph Umar after his brother the previous governor Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan and the governor before him Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah died in a plague along with 25,000 other people.[79][80] Amr ibn al-As was sent to take on the Roman Army in Egypt. With limited resources his marriage to Maysum was politically motivated, as she was the daughter of the chief of the Kalb tribe, that was a large Jacobite Christian Arab tribe in Syria. The Kalb tribe had remained largely neutral when the Muslims first went into Syria.[81] After the plague that killed much of the Muslim Army in Syria, by marrying Maysum, Muawiyah started to use the Jacobite Christians, against the Romans. Muawiyas wife Maysum (Yazids mother) was also a Jacobite Christian.[82] With limited resources and the Byzantine just over the border, Muawiyah worked in cooperation with the local Christian population. The second caliph Umar was very firm on the governors and his spies kept an eye on the governors. If he felt that a governor or a commander was becoming attracted to wealth or did not meet the required administrative standards, he had him removed from his position.[83] Early Muslim armies stayed in encampments away from cities because Umar feared that they may get attracted to wealth and luxury. In the process, they may get away from the worship of God and become attracted to wealth and start accumulating wealth and establishing dynasties.[84][85][86][87] Wealth and children are [but] adornment of the worldly life. But the enduring good deeds are better to your Lord for reward and better for [ones] hope. Quran 18:46 [88] O you who have believed, let not your wealth and your children divert you from remembrance of Allah . And whoever does that - then those are the losers. Quran 63:9 [89] Staying in these encampments away from the cities also ensured that there was no stress on the population and also that the populations remained autonomous and kept their own judges and representatives. Some of these encampments later grew into cities themselves, like Basra and Kufa in Iraq and Fustat in Egypt.[90] Some cities also had agreements with the Muslims, such as during the Siege of Jerusalem in 637 CE.[citation needed] According to some books [91] the town of Caesarea was taken by Muawiyah in 640, when the last Byzantine Roman garrison in Syria and Palestine surrendered. But according to Al-Imam Al-Waqidi, the author of the oldest history books on Islam it was Muawiyah friend Amr ibn al-As who expelled the Roman army from Caesarea. Amr ibn al-As who along with Muawiyahs brother Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan who later became the governor of Syria, expelled the Roman armies from many Syrian cities and later Amr ibn al-As also moved into Egypt.[92] Al-Waqidis books, along with other early history books like al-Baladhuri also illustrate the hugely important role early Muslim women played in society.[93] Under Muawiyahs governance the Syrian army became a major military force. He picked out the best leaders from various tribes where as else where in the state the military units were still based along tribal lines. He personally saw to the comfort and the equipment of the troops, increased their pay and paid them on a regular basis when they were on duty. He kept the troops in training by an annual expedition against the Byzantines and therefore kept the Byzantines in a constant state of unease and therefore kept his northern border safe. He took Qaysariyya in 19 AH.[94] He encouraged innovations in military technology. Muawiyah armies used “Minjenique” machines to propel large stones onto enemy ramparts. He modernized the army, introducing specialized units for desert combat and snowy terrains. New forts were also built. Under Uthman Muawiya left the Byzantine and Persian administrative structures intact, being sure not to give his largely non-Muslims subjects any incentive to revolt [95] Postal system, which was created by Omar ibn al Khattab for military use, was now opened to the public by Muawiya.[96] Uthman dismissed Amr ibn al-As from governorship of Egypt so Muawiyah asked him to join him in Syria. THE BATTLE OF THE MASTS AND EXPANSION ONTO THE MEDITERRANEAN Muawiya was one of the first to realize the full importance of having a navy; as long as the Byzantine fleet could sail the Mediterranean unopposed, the coast line of Syria, Palestine and Egypt would never be safe. Muawiyah along with Adbullah ibn Sad the new governor of Egypt successfully persuaded Uthman to give them permission to construct a large fleet in the dockyards of Egypt and Syria [97] Therefore to stop the Byzantine harassment from the sea during the Arab-Byzantine Wars, in 649 Muawiyah set up a navy; manned by Monophysitise Christians, Copts and Jacobite Syrian Christians sailors and Muslim troops. This resulted in the defeat of the Byzantine navy at the Battle of the Masts in 655, opening up the Mediterranean.[98][99][100][101][102][103] In the Battle of the Masts the Muawiyahs new Arab navy of 200 ships, defeated the well established Roman Navy of 700 to 1000 ships and sank 500 of their ships[81] Muawiyah was motivated by Muhammads statement: The army from my people who will first perform jihad through water has made Paradise obligatory for itself.[104][105][non-primary source needed][third-party source needed] Before the battle, chronicler Theophanes the Confessor says, the Emperor dreamed of being at Thessalonika; this dream predicted his defeat against the Arabs because the word Thessalonika is similar to the sentence thes allo niken, which means gave victory to another (the enemy).[106] During his naval expeditions in 28 AH he took Rhodes and later in 29 AH he took Cyprus.[107] He was accompanied by his wife, Katwa, who died in the course of the expedition. Muawiyah had asked Umar once and Uthman twice for permissions to undertake such naval expeditions. The second time Uthman said If you cross with your wife, we will allow you to do this. Therefore he embarked with several ships and his wife. Umm Haram, the wife of Ubada ibn as-Samit also went on this expedition. The Cypriots capitulated with terms.[108] Under the instructions of the caliph Uthman ibn al-Affan, Muawiyah then prepared for the siege of Constantinople. As Uthman ibn al-Affan became very old, Marwan I a relative of Muawiyah slipped into the vacuum and became his secretary and slowly assumed more control and relaxed some of the restrictions on the governors.[109] SABAITES, QURRA AND THE KHARIJITIES The Quran and Muhammad talked about racial equality and justice as in the The Farewell Sermon.[110][111][112][113][114][115][116] Tribal and nationalistic differences were discouraged. But after Muhammads passing the old tribal differences between the Arabs started to resurface. Following the Roman-Persian Wars and the Byzantine–Sasanian wars deep rooted differences between Iraq, formally under the Persian Sassanid Empire and Syria formally under theByzantine Empire also existed. Each wanted the capital of the newly established Islamic State to be in their area.[117] Sects started to form, among them the Sabaites named after Abdala Ben Saba [118] At-Tabri (5:66) reported that when a man called Abdullah ibn Saba came to Syria, he met Adu Dharr. He Said Adu Dharr, arent you amazed at Muawiya saying, The property is the property of Allah. Doesnt everything belong to Allah? It seems he means to cut it off from the Muslims and erase the name of the Muslims! Adu Dharr therefore went to him and said What leads you to call the property of the Muslims the property of Allah? Muawiya said May Allah have mercy on you, Adu Dharr! Are we not the slaves of Allah and all property is His property and all creation is His creation and all the affair is His affair? Abu Dharr said Do not say that. Muawiya said I do not say that it does not belong to Allah, but I say, The property of the Muslims Adbullah ibn Saba came back to Abu Dharr who them said to him Who are you? By Allah, I think that you are a Jew. Then Ibn Saba went to Abdullah ibn as-Samit and attempted to make his discontented. Adbullah took him to Muawiya and said By Allah this is one who sent Abu Dharr to you. Much of the Jewish literature on Adbullah ibn Saba regards him as an apostate from Judaism too.[119][120][121][122] There was also the movement towards more autonomous tribal groupings which was particularly strong in Kufa, in Iraq, they wanted to rule their own states. Amongst them developed a group called the Qurra who later became known as the Kharijities.[123][124] The Qurra are referenced in many Hadith from the period of Muhammad, Abu Bakr and Umar in Sahih Al Bukhari (Volume 6, Book 60, Number 201 and Volume 6, Book 61, Number 509 and Volume 8, Book 75, Number 403): The Qurra had taken part in the Battle of Yamama. But the Qurra never listened to orders and would start battles even when they were ordered not to and were heavily out numbered. At Yamamah, Khalid ibn al-Walid wrote to them and Ikrimah to just observe the forces of Musaylimah at Yamamah, but not start fighting until he had arrived. Shurahbil bin Hasanah was also being sent to help them. But even though they were heavily out numbered, they disobeyed their orders and started a battle and as a result suffered heavy casualties. They later disobeyed orders and started the Battle of the Camel and the Battle of Saffin and did the same against Ali in the Battle of Nahrawan even through they were heavily out numbered.[125] Volume 6, Book 60, Number 201 : Narrated by Zaid bin Thabit Al-Ansari ...Abu Bakr sent for me after the (heavy) casualties among the warriors (of the battle) of Yamama (where a great number of qurra were killed). Umar was present with Abu Bakr who said, Umar has come to me and said, The people have suffered heavy casualties on the day of (the battle of) Yamama, and I am afraid that there will be more casualties among the qurra at other battle-fields ... Volume 9, Book 92, Number 386 : Narrated by Hammam Hudhaifa said, O the Group of Al-qurra! Follow the straight path, for then you have taken a great lead (and will be the leaders), but if you divert right or left, then you will go astray far away. Al-Masudi calls them the ahl al-qar wa l-ashraf The earliest reference to these people are as Ajl al-Qura, the people of the village, those who fought with Abu Bakr against the desert tribes of Yamama during the Ridda when some of the tribes refused to pay taxes.[126][127][128] The Qurra had political and economic interests that were different from those of Ali or Muawiyah. They had served in the Ridda wars and had been granted trusteeship over some of the lands in Sawad in Iraq and were now called Ahl al Ayyam, those who had taken part in the eastern conquests.[129][130] They then became known as the Qurra and received the highest stipend of the Muslim army, the sharaf al ata and they had the use of the best lands which they came to regard as their private domain. The Qurra received stipends varying between 2,000 and 3,000 dirhams, while the majority of the rest of the troops received only 250 to 300 dirhams. The other Ridda tribesmen in Kufa, in Iraq, resented the special position given to the Qurra. The tension between the Ridda tribesmen and the Qurra threatened the Qurras newly acquired prestige. The Qurra therefore felt obliged to defend their position in the new but rapidly changing society. Uthmans policies of reducing their status threatened their interests.[131][132][133][134] The Qurra were mainly based in Kufa, in Iraq.[135][136] They had not been involved in Syria. But later when Uthman declined to give them more lands in Persia [135][137] they felt that their status was being reduced and therefore started to cause trouble.[135][138] He also removed the distinction between the Ridda and pre-Ridda tribesmen which was not to their liking and lessened their prestige.[139][140][141] The Qurra had previously been desert nomads and some were also bandits and had joined to Muslims so that they could gain lands and status and become the new aristocrats in Iraq[142] But later when Uthman imposed restrictions on them and prevented them from becoming landlords in Iran they rebelled.[143][144][135][145] Some of the people with their tribal names as Qurra had been expelled from Kufa, in Iraq, for fomenting trouble and were sent to Muawiyah in Syria. Muawiyah then said to them: You are people from the Arabs. You have importance and are heard. You have obtained nobility by Islam. You have conquered the nations and you have won their positions and their inheritance. I have heard that you resent the Quraysh. If it had not been for the Quraysh, you would have been considered abased as you were before, However, they are still your Imams today and your shelter, so do not impede your shelter. Your Imamns are patient with you in the face of your injustice and endure the trouble that you cause. By Allah, either you will cease or Allah will try you with someone who will be hard on you. Then you will share with them in what you brough about on the populace while you were alive and after your death. [146] The Qurra Arabs had previously been desert nomads and bandits. One of them then spoke with great arrogance and said to Muawiyah How much you go on about authority and the Quraysh! The Arabs (meaning they the Qurra) were eating from the hilts of their swords while the Quraysh were nothing but merchants! He then said As for the shelter you mentioned, when the shelter is pierced, then come to us meaning that they will remove the Quraysh and will rule them selves.[147] Muawiyah then said to him I remind you by Islam and yet you mention the Jahiliyya (meaning their days before Islam)[148] Muawiyah then wrote to Uthman saying: Some people have come to me who have neither intellect nor deen (faith). Islam is burdensome to them and justice vexes them. They do not aim for Allah in anything nor do they speak by any proof. They are busy with sedition and appropriating the property of the non Muslims. Allah is the One who will test and try them. Then He will be the One to disgrace them and humiliate them. They are those who injure people.[149] Then they were sent to Abdur r Rahman ibn Khalid ibn Walid. He said to them: Tools of Shaytan! You have no welcome! Shaytan has returned in sorrow and yet you are still active! May Allah disappoint Abdur Rahman if he does not discipline you until he makes you feel regret! O company of a people whom I do not know to be Arab or non Arab, you will not say to me what I heard you said to Muawiyah! I am the son of Khalid ibn al-Walid. I am the son of the one who was tested by the teeth. I am the son of the one who knocked out the Ridda![150] He mentioned the Ridda and not the defeat of the Byzantine or the Persian because he recognized that these people were an internal threat.[151] The Qurra had previously fought in the Ridda wars alongside Khalid ibn al-Walid but now had political and economic interests that were different from the rest of the Muslims. Abdur r Rahman ibn Khalid ibn Walid then sent them to Uthman in Madina. In Madina they took an oath that they will not cause trouble and following the example of Muhammad, Uthman accepted their word and let them go.[152] They then split up and went to various different Muslim centers and started fomenting rebellion, particularly in Egypt.[153] In the best selling book, Shadow of the sword, The Battle for Global Empire and the End of the Ancient World, Tom Holland writes [154] Uthman was not content to divide up the loot of the old empires in the time-honoured manner of a bandit chieftain sharing out plunder after a successful raid. The Arabs, so it seemed to the new Amir had moved on from that. The conquerors, if they were to make best use of the defeated superpowers bureaucracies, would themselves have to accept certain disciplines: a central administration, not least, and a clear-cut chain of command. Precisely the marks of slavery, in short, that the desert Arabs had always derided. The Qurra then felt that Abu Musa al_Ashari could look after their interests better. Said ibn al-As, the governor in Kufa, in Iraq, then wrote to Uthman I have no power at all over Kufa with Al-Ashtar and his friends who are called al-qurra, and they are idiots [155] In 655/634 the Qurra stopped Uthans governor Said ibn al-As at Jaraa, preventing him from entering Kufa and declared Abu Musa al-Ashari to be their governor. (Later the Qurra proposed Abu Musa al_Ashari as the arbitrator against the wished of Ali after the Battle of Saffin because they felt that he could also better represent their interests there and split away from Ali and became officially known as the Khawarij.)[156] In 656, The Qurra approached Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr the son of Abu Bakr and the adopted son of Ali ibn Abi Talib and the great grandfather of Jafar al-Sadiq and asked him why he was not a governor. They had fought under the service of his father in the Ridda wars. When Ali first heard about the siege of Uthman, he sent his sons Hassan and Hussayn to protect Uthman.[157] Zubayr ibn Awwam sent his son Abdullah ibn Zubair and Talha ibn Ubaydullah sent his son also sent his son to protect Uthman.[158][159] But the Qurra went around them, climbed a wall and ended up killing Uthman ibn al-Affan.[160] According to Encyclopedia of Islam, Muawiyah sent a relief force led by Habib ibn Maslama al-Fihri to protect Uthman, but events moved so fast that Uthman got killed before they arrived, so they turned back from the wadi I kura[14][161][162][163] According to al-Baladhuri one of the earliest books of these events Ali was furious and slapped Hassan and Hussein saying How did he get killed when you were at the door?[164] There were references to these people in earlier texts too. Abū Dharr narrated that Muhammad said: Aḥmad, Muslim, and Ibn Mājah “There will definitely be a people after me from my nation who recite the Quran yet it will not even reach beyond their throats. They will pass through the religion as an arrow passes through a target, then they will not return back to it. They are the worst of people, the worst of all creatures.” [165] al-Bukhārī, Muslim, Abū Dāwūd, and al-Nasā`ī all recorded a Ḥadīth from Abū Sa’īd al- Khudrī ( رَضِيَ اللهُ عَنْهُ ) that he said: ‘Alī ( رَضِيَ اللهُ عَنْهُ ) sent some gold to the prophet ( صَلَّى اللهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّم ) so divided and distributed it among four groups: al-Aqra’ Ibn Ḥābis al-Ḥanẓalī, al-Mujāshi’ī, ‘Uyaynah Ibn Badr al-Fazārī, and Zayd al-Ṭā`ī; a man from the Nabhān tribe and ‘Alqamah Ibn ‘Ulāthah al-‘Āmirī; then a man from the Kilāb tribe. (The Muslims of) Quraysh and the residents of Medina became upset and said, “He gives to the noble one from Najd and leaves us?” The prophet ( صَلَّى اللهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّم ) said: إِنَّمَا أَتَأَلَّفُهُمْ “I am only trying to unite their hearts.” Then a man with sunken eyes, thick cheeks, a high forehead, a thick beard, and a shaven head came up and said, “Fear Allah, Muhammad!” He replied: مَنْ يُطِعْ اللَّهَ إِذَا عَصَيْتُ؟ أَيَأْمَنُنِي اللَّهُ عَلَى أَهْلِ الأَرْضِ فَلا تَأْمَنُونِي؟ “Who would obey Allah if I were disobedient (to Him)? Allah trusts me with regards to the people of the earth but you don’t trust me?” [166] After the man left, he said: إِنَّ مِنْ ضِئْضِئِ هَذَا أَوْ فِي عَقِبِ هَذَا قَوْمًا يَقْرَءُونَ الْقُرْآنَ لا يُجَاوِزُ حَنَاجِرَهُمْ يَمْرُقُونَ مِنْ الدِّينِ مُرُوقَ السَّهْمِ مِنْ الرَّمِيَّةِ يَقْتُلُونَ أَهْلَ الإِسْلامِ وَيَدَعُونَ أَهْلَ الأَوْثَانِ لَئِنْ أَنَا أَدْرَكْتُهُمْ لأَقْتُلَنَّهُمْ قَتْلَ عَادٍ “From the progeny of this man,” or he said, “From the offspring of this man, there will come a people who will recite the Quran but it will not go beyond their throats. They will go through the religion like a arrow going through a target. They will murder the people of Islam while ignoring the people of idol-worship. If I were to reach them (their time), I would destroy them like the people of ‘Ād were destroyed.” [167] Some modern scholars like R. E. Brunnow trace the origins of the Qurra and the Kharitites back to Bedouin stock and desert tribesmen, who had become soldiers not out of commitment to Islam but to share the spoils. Brunnow held that the Kharijites were Bedouin Arabs (Beduinenaraber) or full blooded Arabs.[168] UNDER ALIS CALIPHATE Ali was then asked by the people in Madina to become the Caliph. But Ali said: Leave me and seek some one else. We are facing a matter which has (several) faces and colours, which neither hearts can stand nor intelligence can accept. Clouds are hovering over the sky, and faces are not discernible. You should know that if I respond to you I would lead you as I know and would not care about whatever one may say or abuse. If you leave me then I am the same as you are. It is possible I would listen to and obey whomever you make in charge of your affairs. I am better for you as a counsellor than as chief. [169][non-primary source needed][third-party source needed] Ali later wrote in a letter I did not approach the people to get their oath of allegiance but they came to me with their desire to make me their Amir (ruler). I did not extend my hands towards them so that they might swear the oath of allegiance to me but they themselves extended their hands towards me.[170][non-primary source needed][third-party source needed] Ali later assumed the position of caliph. Following the Roman-Persian Wars and the Byzantine–Sasanian wars there were deep rooted differences between Iraq, formally under the Persian Sassanid Empire and Syria formally under theByzantine Empire. The Iraqis wanted the capital of the newly established Islamic State to be in Kufa so as to bring revenues into their area and oppose Syria.[171] They convinced Ali to come to Kufa and establish the capital in Kufa, in Iraq.[171] Ali later moved the capital to Kufa.[171] Muawiyah the governor of Syria, a relative of Uthman ibn al-Affan and Marwan I wanted the culprits arrested. Marwan I and the Qurra manipulated every one and created conflict. This later resulted in the first civil war (the First Fitna). Muawiyah, the governor of Syria, a relative of Uthman ibn al-Affan and Marwan I wanted the culprils arrested. Aisha, Talhah and Zubayr ibn al-Awam also asked Ali to arrest the culprits.[172] When Ali decided to take on Muawiyah, Aisha, Talhah and Zubayr ibn al-Awam then went to Kufa to talk to Ali. Muawiyah did not go to Basra with Aisha, Talhah and Al-Zubayr. He was in Damascus at the time.[173] The talks lasted for months. Zubair who was Alis and Muhammads cousin did not want fellow Muslims to fight. He said to Ali What a tragedy that the Muslims who had acquired the strength of a rock are going to be smashed by colliding with one another.[174] Some chieftains of the Kufa tribes contacted their tribes living in Basra.[174] A Chieftain contacted Ali to settle the matter.[174] Ali did not want to fight and he agreed.[174] He then contacted Aisha and spoke to her,[174] Is it not wise to shed the blood of five thousand for the punishment of five hundred[174] She agreed to settle the matter.[174] Ali then met Talha and Zubair and told them about the prophecy of Muhammad. Both of them did not want to fight and left the field. Everyone was happy, but not the people who had killed Uthman and the supporters of Ibn Saba.[174] They thought that if a settlement was reached, they would not be safe.[174] The Sabaites launches a night attack and started burning the tents.[174] Ali was restraining his men but nobody was listening, as every one thought that the other party had committed break of trust. Confusion prevailed throughout the night.[174] The Qurra and the Sabaites attacked the Umayyads and the fighting started. Qazi Kab of Basra advised Aysha to mount her camel tell people to stop fighting.[174][174] Alis cousin Zubair, was by then making his way to Medina and he was killed in an adjoining valley by a Sabait[174] called Amr ibn Jarmouz. Amr ibn Jarmouz had followed Zubair and murdered him while he was in his prays.[174] Talhah also left. On seeing this, Marwan who was manipulating everyone shot Talhah with a poisoned arrow[175]saying that he had disgraced his tribe, by leaving the field.[174] With the two generals Zubair and Talhah gone confusion prevailing and the Qurra, the Sabaites and the Umayyads fought.[175][176] Aishas brother Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr, who was Alis commander, then approached Aisha. Ali pardoned Aisha and her brother Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr escorted her back to Medina.[175] Ali also released Marwan. Alis inability to punish the murderers of Uthman and Muawiyahs refusal to pledge allegiance eventually led to Ali moved his army north to confront Muawiyah. Ali sent three men, Bashir bin Amr bin Mahz Ansari, Saeed bin Qais Hamdani, and Shis bin Rabiee Tamini to Muawiya to induce him to settle for union, accord and coming together. Muawiyah replied: Go away from here, only the sword will decide between us.[177] The two armies encamped themselves at Siffin for more than one hundred days, most of the time being spent in negotiations. Neither side wanted to fight. Then on 11th Safar 37 AH, the Iraqis under Ashtars command, the Qurra, in Alis army, who had their own camp started the fighting in earnest which lasted three days. The loss of life was terrible. Suddenly one of the Syrians, Ibn Lahiya, out of dread of the fitna and unable to bear the spectacle rode forward with a copy of the Quran on the ears of his horse to call for judgement by the book of Allah, and the other Syrians followed suit. Everyone on both sides took up the cry, eager to avoid killing their follow Muslims - except for the conspirators. The majority of Alis followers supported arbitration. Nasr b Muzahim, in one of the earliest source states that al-Ash ath ibn Qays, one of Alis key supporters and a Kufan, then stood up and said:O company of Muslims! You have seen what happened in the day which has passed. In it some of the Arabs have been annihilated. By Allah, I have reached the age which Allah willed that I reach. but I have never ever seen a day like this. Let the present convey to the absent! If we fight tomorrow, it will be the annihilation of the Arabs and the loss of what is sacred. I do not make this statement out of fear of death, but I am an aged man who fears for the women and children tomorrow if we are annihilated. O Allah, I have looked to my people and the people of my deen and not empowered anyone. There is no success except by Allah. On Him I rely and to Him I return. Opinion can be both right and wrong. When Allah decides a matter, He carries it out whether His servants like it or not. I say this and I ask Allahs forgiveness for me and you. Then, Nasr b Muzahim says people looked at Muawiya who said He is right, by the Lord. If we meet tomorrow the Byzantines will attack our women and children and the people of Persia will attack the women and children of Iraq. Those with forebearance and intelligence see this. Tie the copies of the Quran to the ends of the spears. So the fighting stopped.[178] The estimated casualties were that Alis forces lost 25,000, while Muawiyahs forces lost 45,000.[179] Every time Ali tried to negotiate the Qurra and the Sabait started wars and launched night attacks, fearing that if there was peace, then they will be arrested.[180]