Writing and Detailing a Paragraph: Lets talk about writing: How do we write and detail a paragraph? Please read this in its entirety!!!! A paragraph is a sentence or group of sentences set off as a unit. Usually all the sentences in a paragraph can be related to a single main idea. The main problems affecting paragraphs are focus and development. A poorly focused paragraph is difficult to understand because there seems to be no relation between the individual sentences. A paragraph may appear to be poorly focused because it is (the writer tries to cover too many ideas instead of focusing on the single important idea), or because the writer has not provided transitions to connect the ideas together. A poorly developed paragraph can be well-written, but it is usually ineffective and unpersuasive. Poor development usually results from an over-reliance on generalization (and a parallel lack of specific detail), and a misunderstanding of audience. Often, the writer leaves out important information, such as background and context for someone elses idea, description of setting, definition of a key term, or evidence to support an assertion. The writer omits such information because she or he believes the reader already knows it and would be bored by seeing it again. This section contains some basic advice for good paragraphs. !!!!! Focus on a Main Idea... Most paragraphs have recognizable main ideas. The main idea is simply what the paragraph is about, and may be stated in a topic sentence which occurs at the beginning of the paragraph, or may be so obvious that it is implied. All other sentences in the paragraph should be related to and contribute to the main idea. !!!! Use Specific Details (Dont just generalize, be specific)... An effective paragraph develops the main idea with enough detail to hold the readers attention and explain the writers ideas. Too little detail produces boring and abstract paragraphs. Too much detail produces unfocused paragraphs that overwhelm the reader. !!! Develop using a Pattern... The structure of a paragraph can take almost an infinite variety of forms. However, certain patterns occur frequently. Narration A narrative paragraph uses a story or part of a story to develop the main idea. Often the story serves as anecdotal evidence in support of the main idea, producing a paragraph similar to the example and illustration pattern. Description: A descriptive paragraph uses specific details to create a clear idea of a place, time, person, or object. Descriptive paragraphs show rather than tell, and use details such as sensory details to help the reader construct a picture of the scene. Definition: A definition paragraph provides a detailed definition of a key term in the essay. Example and Illustration An example or illustration paragraph illustrates a point with one or more examples. Division and Classification: A classification paragraph groups items into categories according to some specific principle. A division paragraph breaks a single item into its parts according to some specific principle. Comparison and Contrast: A comparison paragraph looks at the similarities between two or more items. A contrast paragraph looks at the differences between two or more items. Sometimes items are both compared and contrasted. Analogy: Occasionally, analogies can be used to develop an idea. An analogy draws a comparison between two items, usually for the purpose of showing some surprising similarity. Cause and Effect: A cause and effect paragraph develops an idea by explaining the causes of something or by showing the effects of something. The paragraph might move from cause to effects or from an effect to its causes. Process: A process paragraph depicts or explains a process, often using chronology to order the individual stages in the process. !!! Make Paragraphs Coherent A paragraph has coherence, or flows, when the details of the paragraph fit together in a way that is clear to the reader. Coherence is partially the product of choosing an appropriate paragraph pattern for your ideas, and partially the product of sentence-level control. Here are some ways to improve paragraph coherence: •Repeat key words or phrases —or pronouns that point to them—to link sentences (and alert them to the importance of the ideas represented by those words and phrases). •Use parallelism. Parallelism can be applied to parts of a sentence. It can also be applied to sentences within a paragraph. •Maintain consistency of tone, register, and point of view. •Provide transitions. See Transitional Words and Phrases below. ___________________________________ _________________________ !!! Transitional Words and Phrases... Transitions are words or phrases that specify a relationship between sentences and between paragraphs. They help direct the reader from one idea to another. Skilled writers use transitions with care, making sure to use the correct one and also making sure not to overuse them. Commonly used transitions are shown below: (Use these!!!) (See discourse markers in our files) To Specify Sequence: again, also, and, and then, besides, finally, first . . . second . . . third, furthermore, last, moreover, next, still, too To Specify Time: after a few days, after a while, afterward, as long as, as soon as, at last, at that time, before, earlier, immediately, in the meantime, in the past, lately, later, meanwhile, now, presently, simultaneously, since, so far, soon, then, thereafter, until, when To Specify Comparison: again, also, in the same way, likewise, once more, similarly: To Specify Contrast: although, but, despite, even though, however, in contrast, in spite of, instead, nevertheless, nonetheless, on the contrary, on the one hand . . . on the other hand, regardless, still, though, yet To Specify Examples: after all, for example, for instance, indeed, in fact, of course, specifically, such as, the following example, to illustrate To Specify Cause and Effect: accordingly, as a result, because, consequently, for this reason, hence, if . . . then, since, so, then, therefore, thereupon, thus, to this end To Specify Place: above, adjacent to, below, beyond, closer to elsewhere, far, farther on, here, near, nearby, opposite to, there, to the left, to the right To Specify Concession: although it is true that, granted that, I admit that, it may appear that, naturally, of course To Specify Summary, Repetition, or Conclusion: as a result, as has been noted, as I have said, as mentioned earlier, as we have seen, in any event, in conclusion, in other words, in short, on the whole, therefore, to summarize Cohesion and Coherence: Cohesion: Readers must feel that they move easily from one sentence to the next, that each coheres with the one before and after. Coherence: Readers must also feel that sentences are not just individually clear but constitute a unified passage focused on a coherent set of ideas. Cohesion: Cohesion refers to how a group of sentences hang together. Sometimes, to achieve better cohesion we have to violate other writing rules we think are sacrosanct. Take for example the following two sentences: a. The collapse of a dead star into a point perhaps no larger than a marble creates a black hole. b. A black hole is created by the collapse of a dead star into a point perhaps no larger than a marble. Given a choice between these two sentences we would probably choose the FIRST since it uses an active verb while the second uses a passive verb. But the passive does have its uses, such as helping readers create that sense of flow that characterizes a coherent passage. Which of the following two passages flows better? A. Some astonishing questions about the nature of the universe have been raised by scientists studying black holes in space. The collapse of a dead star into a point perhaps no larger than a marble creates a black hole. So much matter compressed into so little volume changes the fabric of space around it in puzzling ways. B. Some astonishing questions about the nature of the universe have been raised by scientists studying black holes in space. A black hole is created by the collapse of a dead star into a point perhaps no larger than a marble. So much matter compressed into so little volume changes the fabric of space around it in puzzling ways. * The second passage reads more coherently because the concept introduced by each new sentence seems to follow from the previous sentence. This technique is called old-to- new and is one of the most important principles of a cohesive writing style. The principles of old-to-new are: 1.Begin your sentences with information familiar to your readers. 2.End your sentences with information your readers cannot anticipate. Coherence: However, writing can have a cohesive flow and be almost indecipherable. Consider the following passage: Saner, Wisconsin, is the snowmobile capital of the world. The buzzing of snowmobile engines fills the air, and their tank-like tracks crisscross the snow. The snow reminds me of Mom’s mashed potatoes, covered with furrows I would draw with my fork. Mom’s mashed potatoes usually made me sick, that’s why I play with them. I like to make a hole in the middle of the potatoes and fill it with melted butter. This behavior has been the subject of long chats between me and my analyst. This passage is cohesive, moving from Saner to snowmobiles to snow to Mom’s mashed potatoes to behavior, but it certainly is NOT coherent. * To understand coherence we need to consider how readers make sense out of larger groupings of sentences. Readers feel a passage is coherent when the writer helps them accomplish two tasks: 1.Identify the topics (what the sentence is about) of individual sentences quickly. 2.Recognize how the topics form a connected set of ideas. Readers want to know what a sentence is about, its topic. However, this is not always easy to find. ___________________________________ __________________________ Consider the following sentences. What are the topics? 1.And therefore, politically speaking, in Eastern states since 1980, acid rain has become a serious problem. 2.International cooperation is still the goal of most countries. 3.It is impossible for your claims to be proved conclusively. 4.In regard to these questions, I believe there is a need for more research. 5.It is likely that our proposals will be accepted. 6.Results like these no one could have predicted. Topic refers not to the grammatical subject of a sentence, but to its psychological subject, and we expect to find the topic in the first few words of the sentence. Readers are more comfortable with these early topics because it helps them understand what the sentence is about. More important, readers depend on seeing in a sequence of topics (in a sequence of sentences) what the whole passage is about. Combining Cohesion and Coherence: If you begin sentences and even clauses with information familiar to your readers, with phrases that are short, simple, and familiar, your readers are more likely to think you can write clearly and coherently. And no two units of information are shorter and simpler than the subject of a sentence and that subject’s specific actions as a verb. In short: 1.Begin sentences with short simple words and phrases communicating information that appeared in previous sentences, or with knowledge that you can assume you and your reader share. 2.Through a series of sentences that you want your readers to understand as a coherent, focused passage, keep your topics short and reasonably consistent.
Posted on: Sun, 30 Nov 2014 05:15:44 +0000
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