displayed. EAPE 421: ECONOMICS AND PLANNING OF EDUCATION Lecturer: Dr. D. Kuria Wamukuru Introduction: According to the Oxford dictionary, to plan is to devise or design something to be done or some action, or to arrange beforehand. Dror (1963) defined planning as the process of preparing a set of decisions for action in the future, directed at achieving goals by optimal means. According to Anderson & Bowman (1967) planning is the process of preparing a set of decisions for action in the future. Poe (1980) defined planning as the process of rational decision making done sufficiently in advance to promote more effective operation of institutions such as a school. thus to him, planning is future oriented. Planning helps planers to answer certain basic questions that are relevant to decision making process. These questions simply framed are: - - What is to be done - Where is it that is to be done - When will it be done - Who will do it? - How will it be done? Planning in all its forms is a rational process of preparing a set of decisions for future actions directed at achieving objectives already set. It is thus a continuous process: - - Future oriented - Goal oriented - Action oriented Planning is very essential in all aspects of human life because of one major factor – scarcity of resources. The resource available against the needs are not adequate. Quality and quantity of resources to meet the various needs differ from one country to another. These resources usually do not cater for all the needs. Planning first emerged in the military. Before engaging in a battle there was need to plan. From the military planning found its way in all aspects of a country’s life. In every country there are planning units various ministries. Ministry of education has a planning unit. Planning helps to make wise decision because the resources available as less than the needs. In education there are a lot of educational needs – books, teaching/learning materials, teachers salaries – while the resources are not adequate – hence planning is essential. Population increase more demanding education. There is widespread agreement today in academic and government circles that public decision regarding education should be made through planning rather than adhoc – haphazard. WHAT IS EDUCATION PLANNING. WHAT EDUCATION PLANNING IS NOT 1. Education planning is not a miracle drug to cure all the problems of the ailing education system (pamecia) It is an attempt to solve some of the problems facing the education system and to avoid such problems cropping up in the future. 1. Educational planning is not a standard formula to be imposed on all educational situations regardless of their unique differences. It is not a mathematical formula. What is applicable in education in Kenya may not work – other countries. 1. Educational planning is not a conspiracy to destroy the freedom and prerogatives of the education administration teachers and students. Before the emergence of educational planners, education was managed by education administrators. Education planners are seen by education administrators as those out t upset the status quo. This is not the case. WHAT IS EDUCATION PLANNING THEN? There are two types of definations of educational planning. LEGISLATIVE DEFINITION OF EDUCATION PLANNING This is idealistic definition of education planning. What we want education planning to be but not necessarily what it is. According to a Latin American Seminar on comprehensive Educational planning held in Santiago (1962) organized by the UN. “The overall planning of education is a continuous systematic process, involving the application and co- ordination of social research methods, and of principles and techniques of education, administration, economic and finance, with the participation and support of the general public in education for the people, with definite aims and in well defined stages, and to providing everyone with an opportunity of developing his effective contribution to social cultural and economic development of the country. This definition is only an idealistic statement of what educational planning ought to be. EMPIRICAL DEFINATION OF EDUCATION PLANNING “Planning educational development represents a forecasting activity aspiring to lay down policies and costs concerning the school system, providing a due observance of economic and political realities, the system growth potential, the needs of the country and of the students to whom the system should serve”. By Beeby – former director – International Institute of Educational Planning (I.I.E.P). This definition is physical nature, the use of the word forecasting – shows that educational planning is not a miracle drug. It might be wrong, entirely wrong, entirely right or just right – depending on the situation. This definition holds observance to the social economic and political realties. The objection of early education system are embedded in the political, social and economic policies of the country. Any plan that does not pay attention to this realities is doomed to fail. EDUCATIONAL PLANNING According to Dror (1963) and Coombs (1980), Educational Planning involves the application of rational, systematic analysis to the process of education with the aim of making education more effective and efficient in terms of responding to the needs and goals of the students and the society at large. SCOPE OF EDUCATION PLANNING. WHAT EDUCATION PLANNING CONCERNS ITSELF WITH Broadly speaking education planning concerns itself with 4 broad areas. 1. Settling of specific objectives - What do we want to achieve - Focus on the problem to be solved. 1. Providing the various options to achieve the specific objectives. - Providing various alternatives that can aid the achievement of the specific goals. 1. Determining the likely implication of each option. 2. Selecting the best option within the existing constraints. TIME DIMENSION IN EDUCATIONAL PLANNING Education planning recognize 3 time dimensions. 1. Long-term Educational Planning - Forecasting 1. Medium Term Educational Planning - Planning 1. Short term Educational Planning - Programming LONG TERM EDUCATIONAL PLANNING (FORECASTING) 1. It usually embodies on extrapolation of problems expected within the education system and possible solutions to these problem i.e. what educations problems are likely to be there in the long term? Which requirements are necessary to solve these problems. 1. It covers a period not shorter than 10 years. Some can take upto 50 years e.g. All African countries to achieve commercial free primary education by 2015. (UNSECO). In Kenya – to achieve free primary education by 2015. What will be the demands e.g. classes, teachers, etc. What will be the solution. 2. It serves as a guide and source of ideas for planners undertaking medium and short-term educational plans. Short-term and medium educational plans are subsets of long term plans. 1. In no other sector within the society is long-term planning more applicable like in education. In education there is absolute need to plan. It take s16 years to produce a graduate. This are considerable number of years and therefore the need to plan. MEDIUM TERM PLAN - It belongs into sharp focus the general goal put forth in the long term plan. - It makes the boundaries of the objectives clearer. - It usually takes 5 – 10 years. This usually vary from country to country. It corresponds with the national development plan. The medium form educational plan is usually a chapter in the national development plan. SHORT-TERM EDUCATIONAL PLAN Emanates from the medium term educational plan. There the educational projects are specifically stated and targets are set. The strategies to deal with the problem are hated. Within it we have the annual plan within which the plan is implemented. PLANNING TIME TYPE OF PLANNING PURPOSE END IN VIEW 10 – 25 years Long Term Setting of goals To establish direction 5 – 10 years Medium term Set specific objectives To develop strategic 1- 5 years Short term Set targets To allocate resources 0 – 1 year Animal planning To set tasks Have plan implemented WHAT ARE THE BASIC FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATIONAL PLANNING 1. Normative Function: This Involves decision making. Decisions are carried out by politicians, highly ranking influential citizens and professionals. In Kenya, this function is carried out by the cabinet in liaison with professionals. Both cabinet and nominated professionals are concerned with goal setting and goal approval. At independence for example the first task of the newly independent government was to set up the national goals of education which would guide the country in the development course. The government commissioned the S.H Ominde Committee to restructure the education system so that it could meet the newly independent Kenya. Education for Manpower. NB: Ominde (Chairman) - First Kenya Education Commission. Report of the Commission Adopted in 1964. - The Commission came up with the National Educational goals. - It is the foundation upon which our education system in Kenya if founded. 1. TECHNICAL FUNCTION Also called Strategic Function: It focuses on the formulation of plans, identification of targets and evaluation of required resources. Carried out by people commonly designated as “Planners”. These are technicians who are well trained in statistics. They are found in the planning units of various ministries in the Country. In the ministry of education, the planners deal with the qualitative and quantitative aspects of education. Quality – improving quality of education, effectiveness of education. Better training facilities. Quantitative – numbers enrolled in education. Demand for education at various levels. Demand/Supply of teachers etc. Quality of education facilities. Provision of financial resources to education. Educational planners obtain enough data cariole it and use it to set priorities in education and consequently the formulate plans. 1. IMPLEMENTATION FUNCTIONS This is the operational strategy. It refers to the procedures for fulfilling the plan targets. These activities are performed by administrators of the education system both at national , provincial and district levels – D.E.O’s D.D.E’s Injector, H/Ms. They oversee the implementation of educational plans and their coordination. Through implementation function of educational planning a strong link between plan implementation and administration is thus developed. 1. CONTROL FUNCTION This is the evaluation function. It involves the discovery of discrepancies, between actual and planned achievement, errors and problems and subsequent modification of the plan. These regime close interaction between administrators and planners. NB: All these functions cannot really be divorced from each other. They are performed in an overlapping and interlocking manner. Which of the four functions is carried out by teachers in their role at planers? FEATURES OF GOOD EDUCATIONAL PLANS - It should take long range view. It takes time to implement desired changes in education. This is a good plan should take short-range, middle-range without the Long- term plan. - It should be integrated within the wider framework of the development process in the society. - It should be comprehensive enough to cover all aspects of education. - It should take into consideration the external forces that might against its intended goals – should be harmonious with the prevailing socio-economies and political situations. Including interests of pressure groups e.g. teachers unions. - It should focus on the quantitative ad qualitative aspects of education. - It should have room for evaluation both formative and innovative. - It should not be a monolithic formula to be imposed on all situations –society is experiencing changes – plan should be flexible enough to accommodate alterations in the light of changing circumstances. HISTORY OF EDUCATIONAL PLANNING Educational development has been influenced by socio-economic and political needs of society. Ancient Greek societies like the Spartans, and Athenians, the Peruvian Incas, and Chinese – planned education in order to suit the aspirations of the state. Spartans – Society stratified into citizens and subjects. Some of the subjects were hostile to the state, education was designed with the purpose of producing warriors to defend the state. Education planning in ancient societies lacked dynamism and therefore there was no room to incorporate new ideas. MODERN CONCEPT OF EDUCATION PLANNING - Modern concept of educational planning can be traced back to the Soviet Union after the 1917 October revolution. - The main aim of the revolution was to create a classless society. - Education was carefully planned to infiltrate socialist ideas among citizens. - Curriculum emphasized practical education in order to enhance labour productivity. - Teacher education was expanded. - Education was provided freely and made compulsory to eradicate illiteracy. - By 1923 – Though efforts of integrating education with the needs of the soviet union emerged as the most educationally vibrant nation in the world within a period of five years (by 1923). REST OF EUROPE The emerging principles of educational planning (integrating of with general development aspects of society) were gradually adopted by the socialist nature of central Europe. Modern concept of educational planning in Western Europe however began after the second World War (1939 – 1945) prior to this period, educational planning in most of the Western European Nations had the following features. 1. It was sort range in outlook – thus it lasted only upto the subsequent budget year. 2. It was fragmented in terms of coverage – components of education were planned independently. 3. Educational affairs were planned autonomously with little regards to evolving socio- economic and political needs of society. 4. It was non-dynamic in the same that the planning process allowed a static modal that tended to return its main features intact every year. This changed after World War II. The war brought a number of Socio-Economic problems including poverty and shortage of skilled human resources, policy makers at the time, since education as a panacea for these problems. Planning becomes more purposive and dynamic. Education was made more responsive to the changing needs of society. educational making have evolved in four phases. - Reconstruction phase - Human resource phase (man power phase) - Regard expansion phase - Innovation phase METHODOLOGIES OF EDUCATIONAL PLANNING Approaches to educational planning 1.The social Demand approach Social demand for education is the aggregate popular demand for education at a given place and time under prevailing social economic and political conditions. - This approach is mainly concerned with the consumption function of education rather than investment aspect of it. - It views education as a service which is demanded by the public just like other goods and services - It is the pressure of the masses fro access to education - It means that education should be provided to all those who want it - The level of joint demand for education in any society is perhaps the best indicator whom expresses the desire of the population in a country to develop - No government is able to must the pressure of its population to education - In an attempt to utilize the social demand approach in education the planners are concerned with the following questions. 1. How many children are born each year? 1. how many children are of the school age cohort (Age six) 2. how many children of the school age cohort desire education? The responses for these questions reveal that social demand approach tend to emphasize voluntary aspect. People can volunteer to acquire education This is not always true. Some ethnic groups in Kenya have negative attitude towards education even with incentives by the government removal of fees dues, construction of boarding schools and mobile schools in arid and semi arid areas to increase their participation. But the participation rates are still very low. Maasai, Turkana Samburu, Rendille and some coastal groups. Approach they referred to by some scholars as ambiguous and mischievous Sociological have interest to find out why demand for education have continued to increase in all continuous They have come up with some reasons 1. Economic reason – position relationship between increasing education and increasing standards of living. 2. Social reasons – increase social status enhanced by increased education level – likely to clip the social ladder 3. Peristaltic process – sub population encourage their offspring’s to go by the education ladder. 4. Education level of the parents determine the education level of their children 5. Honour .. 6. Governt subsidy. FPE, SDSE, 7. The relationship between education and legitimization of power. Education bestows in you the power in a particular sub group. 8. Increase in number of school. 9. More educational programmes What are the factors why there is increasing social command for education? In most developing countries especially African after independence. To increase participation rates. In education, free education was delivered and provided in many countries in Africa mid 1970s (J1974 - Lower primary std 4) Led to increase in the demand for education. Advantages One of the most important advantages of this approach. It is a starting point in planning education for the future. Free education – means to educate people achieve social, economic and political development. It is useful to education planners empowering when formulating educational plans because plays is due for the entire society and not individual. Hence an attitude of population growth trend is determined and education thus provided. Whereas the social demand approach is self tool in showing educational planners the research required at each level of education, Disadvantages 1. it does not show whether there is an alternative means of allocating resources. 2. This approach tend to ignore the larger problem of allocation of resources. It assumes that cost factor is not important. This is a serious economic consequence overworked by social demand approach. 3. It takes very little account of the employment sector. It ignores the character and patters of manpower needed in the modern sector of the economy. This may eventually lead to overproduction in certain management categories against underproduction in other areas. 4. It tends to overestimate the demand for education and fails to consider the quality of education provided. Since the resources available for education are not enough. In developing countries- need to change education systems to improve quality 8-4-4. 5. It is difficult to justify the voluntary aspect this approach tend to emphasize Education was seen as a human right since the 1948 united nations declarations of human eight . Required increase in enrolment after independence was because education was used as a political tool. To unify the nation – national unity Produce manpower Improve economic growth Discussion Question Giving relevant examples in Kenyan education system critically examine the application of the social demand approach. To what extent has the social demand approach been used as guide to decision making in education investment in Kenya. 2.Cost benefit analysis approach (CBA) RATE OF RETURN ANALYSIS (RRA) Cost benefit analysis is a systematic comparison of the costs and benefits of some form of investment in order to assess its profitability” Maureen Woodhall (1970) according to CBA Any form of investment involves a sacrifice of present consumption in order to secure future benefits in form of higher levels of output or income. CBA approach therefore provides you with a means of appraising these future benefits in the light of the costs that must be incurred in the present. Its application to education - When applied to education, the cost benefit analysis approach focuses on the economic benefits of education - We consider the rates of return from various levels of education-primary, secondary, tertiary levels or various types of education ie general education vs vocational and technical education. - Science oriented vs social sciences or liberal arts - An examination of all these would involve an analysis of the costs incurred in their development and the benefits accruing from them. - From that you get the profitability or each level and type of education and a decision is made as to where more investment can be undertaken. Example University education vs primary education Science based Vs Art based programmes CBA examples the benefits of education the individual (private rate of returns against benefits to the society – social net of returns Crucial level was type of education has more benefits to the instrument which level highest cuts to the society. Private rates of return These are the costs incurred and benefits according to individuals. Costs - Tuition fees - Opportunity costs – earnings foregone by being in school. - Transport costs - Accommodation costs - Text books and other materials for learning Benefits to the individual - Salaries and wages – higher - Extra earnings allowances House allowance Car allowance Responsibility allowance Bonuses Scholarships NB: The private rate of returns is highly subsidized by the government At undergraduate level – tuition fees is over 120,000 ksh per annum out of these 70,000 is met by the government Balance 50,000 Students given loan from Higher Education Loan Board (from would bank fund) upto 60,000….. per year. This is a higher cost to the society. Is it justified? The social rate of returns What costs does society incur at each level and type of education and what are the benefits. Society includes – the government, Private sector, Donor agencies, NGOs, Church Costs incurred by society Taxes – PAYE VAT Duty exercises Levies – service change Cess – paid by farmers/government Harambee funds Opportunity cost to society in terms of benefits foregone By investing in education against other sectors of the economy Productivity foregone Benefits to society Most of the benefits to the society are non-monetary Productivity of the individual – include productivity in all sectors of the economy as a result of education. More productivity in agriculture Health – reduce profitability rates Reduce fertility rates Better duet More educated people earn higher salaries and thus pay more taxes to the government It is argued that at lower levels of education (primary level) the social rate of return are higher than in judicial rates of returns. Wile at tertiary level (university education) the rate of returns are higher to the individual than to the society. In the late 1980s in Kenya structural analysis was done using CBA on the various links of education and by early 1990s a decision was made by the government. To invest more on primary education than tertiary levels of education. The argument was that primary education have higher layout to the economy and to the society in general than higher education. Cost sharing policy or as introduced at the higher education levels Introduction of feed at the university level Sessimal papers Deployment plans Exchange report – education for the most decade and beyond. Advantages of cost benefit analysis This approach provides educational planners with vital information about the links between education and the labour market. Costs of different categories of manpower against cost of education. The approach suggest ways of increasing profitability of education ie lowering costs to increase benefits. CBA focuses attention on the problem of choosing between alternative investments in education of science oriented Vs Art oriented Higher scholars Wasting longer for job Flooded Provide information about the economic consequences of alternative education policies. Disadvantages The earning differentiates reflected among individuals cannot be used as a measure of pure benefits of education. Other factors may also contribute to the success of an individual – family background, size-female are usually favoured – luck etc Education tend to generate indirect benefits (spill-over benefits) which are not reflected in the CBA calculations. It is difficult to qualify the indirect benefits. The approach tend to assume free employment of the educated labour force. This is not the case in most developing countries. University graduates have to go for several years before employment. Cost – benefits analysis concentrates on economic benefits of education and takes little account of non- economic benefits. 3.Manpower approach to educational planning Manpower approach is the analysis of the market needs of a country in terms of human resources. This approach considers the development of skilled manpower through education as an important pre-requisite for economic growth. It looks at education as an investment Thus to foster economic growth and to avoid critical shortages or surplus of manpower, educational planners sought to identify future requirements of skilled manpower and to design educational system so as to produce labour force with the necessary skills required in the economy. Is this always the case? It is generally believed that trained human resources would organize both physical and monetary resources better and hence generate the growth of the economy. This approach tries to provide the society with the correct number of suitably educated people to meet most of its economic, social and political needs at all levels of manpower. The approach conserns itself with the relationship between all institutions, schools, colleges and universities in terms of number of students enrolled and those graduating each year from each educational level. The vacant places available in the modern sector of the economy. Methodologies for forecasting the demand for manpower In estimating future demand for manpower, the following questions normally guide educational planners in making forecasts for manpower 1. What are the numerical manpower requirements of the economy? 2. What skills would be required to meet these requirements 3. what educational requirements would be needed to produce the skills required by the economy These questions form the basis for making any estimates for future manpower demand. Methods of manpower forecasting The earliest attempts of manpower forecast were based on simple rules of the thumb – (Ashby, 1960). More recent methods are 1. Employers’ estimates of future manpower requirements 2. International comparisons 3. Manpower population –ratio 4. Extrapolation of fixed input- output ratios Traditional method of the rules of the thumb Held the assumption that high level manpower should grow twice as fast as the target rate of economic growth and that intermediate manpower should grow three times as fast (completed secondary school and at least are year post secondary training). These rules of thumb were not based on evidence or analysis but on judgment. Modern methods Employers estimates of future manpower requirements Employer data based method - Simple method of manpower forecasting - Employer are asked to specify the type of manpower they require at different occupational categories in the years to come. - The method involves getting an aggregate of all employers requirements plus estimates of the retirements and deaths (attrition) over the relevant period - The result will be a forecast of the increase in effective manpower demand by the target year. Criticism The problem with this method is that individual employers find it as difficult as government to make accurate forecasts. But information derived from employers estimates can through some light on the assumption and technique of forecasting Some developing countries still use it to estimate manpower needs Example: in sectors dominated by few large employers – who extra powerful influence in the manpower demand in the sector eg TSC in Kenya. In many developing countries – public sector is virtually the only employer – teachers/doctors when government control both supply and demand. Yet considerable problem arise in forecasting future numbers accurately. ii) International comparisons consist of simple comparison of the manpower and educational structures of countries at different stages of development. - To achieve faster economic growth it is assumed that less developed countries should copy the structures in countries with higher national income – developed countries. - Alternatively, detailed analysis of input-output relationships in different countries can be used to ex-trapolate trends, e in labour productivity or in occupational and educational distributions - To achieve higher levels of output developing countries must increase the number of qualified workers employed until the proportions researches those more developed countries. Manpower population ratio Concentrates on the ratio between one type of manpower and particular population parameter. For example force or school population. PTR, Doctor population ratio. Forecast for demand for teachers using teacher-pupils ratio or doctors – doctor – population ratio Rely on demographic forecasts and combined with tuiffting norms Like other forecasting method it assess that - Different types of manpower cannot be substituted for one another and that capital cannot be substituted for manpower. - NB: The government is the main of not only the employer of teachers. The need forecast is obvious, since the training period is fairly long, the problem of time lag may be severe. - Forecasting teachers requirement is regarded as a fundamental prerequisite of any decision on education projects ever confirm that do not form manpower forecasting as a general technique – attempt to forecast teachers numbers/. Though frequently inculcate. Problems of forecasting manpower or the basic of labour population ratio 1. The accuracy of demographic forecasts particularly in developing counties is usually quite questionable. 2. many financial factors need to be taken into account. Labour force projects depend on many factors worth many change over time. 3. technological change may cause a substitution of capital for labour or one kind of manpower for another 4. change in relative prices or wage may cause substitution and may change balance between one occupation and another eg trained untrained teachers, engineers and technical, doctors and nurses etc 5. the accuracy of labour- population ratio will depend on analysis of a wide range of factors and the very action of requirements assumes rigidities in the employment patterns that may not exist. iv) The projection of manpower output ratios Thus dominated literature on manpower forecasting Widely need in developed and developing countries. Extrapolation of fixed-input- output ratios Was adopted in one of the earliest attempts to use manpower forecasting as a basis of educational planning. Based on an assumption of certain fixed relationships Eg between labour productivity and occupational category, between occupation and education. Hollister (1967) subjected all these assumptions to critical analysis. NB: Criticism 1. Concept of fixed manpower output coefficient is misleading 2. The idea that there is a rigid relationships between occupation and education is the weakest link in the manpower requirements approach 3. Technological change is difficult to predict but very important in determining the occupational distribution of the labour force. 4. Single-valued forecasts that make no attempts to measure that effects of activities assumptions may be misleading for educational policy- which may allow uncertainties. There are two main methods used to collect data for manpower forecasts. 1. Employer-data-based-method This is the simplest method for manpower forecasting. Employers are asked to specify the type of manpower they required at different occupational tends in the yeas to come. The method incomes getting an aggregate of all employers requirements plus estimate of retirements and deaths over the relevant period. The result will be a forecast of the increase in effective manpower demand by the target year. This method is useful in making one year forecast. But urgent the very complex problems of long-term manpower planning. ii) Traditional high and middle level manpower survey technique Very popular in most developing countries Inventories of occauptional categories of middle and high level manpower cadres in both public and private sectors of the economy are taken. Then assumptions are made about the desirable or appropriate educational qualifications for various occupational categories. Existing vacancies are also recorded taking into account the annual attrition (wastage) caused by deaths, retirement, replacements, dismissal etc These survey usually gives general order of the magnitude of present and future demand for manpower by major occupational categories These then allows for educational plan to be draw ups ensuring that educational institutions procedure people with the education and skills needed in the future. NB: The two methods of data, collection for manpower forecast may be used singly or in an overlapping manner depending on the circumstances prevailing at the time. Advantages of the manpower approach 1. The approach helps the educational planners to examine the gaps and imbalance in the education output pattern. It looks at production of graduates from the education system against availability of jobs in the modern sector of the economy with a view of highlighting and correcting oversupply and undersupplying. 2. helps education system in meeting the needs of the estimated trained personnel required for development. 3. It gives a useful guidance on how educational qualifications of the laobur force ought to evolve in future eg what relative ratio should be with primary, secondary, post- secondary, university level education. 4. This will help educational planners to convert the occupational pyramid of the labour force into an educational structure-indicating level of formal education required in each occupation category. 5. The manpower approach aims at self-sufficiency in manpower resources which is essential for sound educational planning and hence important for economic development 6. This approach is essential for macro-planning. Planning is holistic in nature in the sense that education is planned in view of the whole nation. Plan for the whole country manpower needs Disadvantages of manpower approach 1. This approach tend to confine its attention on high-level manpower needed by the modern sector of the economy. It ignores the educational requirements of the semi- skilled and unskilled workers who constitute the majority of the nations future labour force. 2. it is sometimes impossible to make reliable forecasts of manpower requirements far-ahead-of time fluctuations in manpower demands are inevitable due to economic, political and technological changes. 3. manpower approach tend to limit educational planning to strictly economic ends, ignoring optimum resource allocation, cost- befit and social demand aspects 4. It falls to take into account the cost involved in producing of manpower and the ability of the economy to finance the manpower needs of the country. 4.Systems approach to educational planning Systems approach is a process by which needs are identified, problems selected, solutions chosen from alternatives, methods and means, methods and means are obtained and solutions implemented, results evaluated and revision done. It is a type of logical problem solving process applied to identifying and solving educational problems such as identifying the cases of unemployment and developing strategies on how to curb it. This approach is a way of thinking that puts emphasis on identifying causes of the problem and seeking problem solutions. The systems approach to educational [planning is an attempt to use the process of logical development and on-going monitoring and evaluation in order to allow continuous reflection. The systems approach is dynamic and allows for reflection of ideas. It is a vehicle that allows educational planners to think more systematically and logically about the objectives relevant to the needs of the society and the means of achieving and assessing them. There are three elements in a system. Inputs – process – output. In this approach, time frame has to be identified. The approach is atypical problem solving process applied to identifying and solving educational problems and is considered central to success in planning. It involves increased number of options being used hence contributing to increased success. It helps in budgeting and forms a basis of choosing the most appropriate to solving problem. PPBS (Planning, Programming and Budgeting Systems). PPBS – combines three related but district phases. Planning – 1st entails formation and forecasting of goals and objectives Enables educational managers to highlight the constraints of time, (human) people and material resources necessary to achieve objectives. Programming – 2nd step – process of advising the means which are necessary for the achievement of the objectives Help in the determination and organization of both human and material resources necessary for organizational objectives. Budgeting – refers to the transformation of the plans and programmes into the fiscal terms PPS – uses systems analysis, a system that and educational managers in choosing a source of action after systematically investigating costs, objectives and their effectiveness and instill associated with alternative policies. Systems analysis uses both cost- budget and cost effective analysis The analytical process applied enables educational mangers to systematically examine the alternative courses of action in terms of utility and sort, for that relevant alternatives and evaluated. Characteristics of PPBS 1. It is output oriented – emphasizes the output, by relating programmes to the organizational objectives 2. The evaluation is done by company designed outcome with actual accomplishments 3. It applies qualitative methods to analyze comparative benefits of programmes. Qualitative methods include – cost-benefit analysis cost effective evaluation and management information systems. 4. It provides educational mangers with municipality of alternative through systems analysis 5. 1st providers long-range fiscal planning in which the annual budgets are integrated in the long range plans of the organization 6. It provides the programme review and revision which enables organization and innovation in educational organizational 7. It integrates budgeting in the policy formulation in an educational organization 8. It enhances management accountability and measurement of performance 9. It provides economic rationality in educational organizations Its analytical techniques enables educational management to provide rationality in economic aspects of educational organizations. The budgetary process The school budgetary procedure according to (PPBS) consist of three main pars 1. The educational plan, (programme) 2. He spending plan (expenditure plan) 3. The financial plan (revenue) income plan 5.Basic Needs Approach to Educational Planning Assignment PROBLEM AFFECTING EDUCATIONAL PLANNING IN DEVELOPING 1.Existing policies One of the major constraints to educational planning in poor existing policies, Lack of clear policies, conflicting policies.. 2.Lack of political good will/ political interference/Political patronage E.g. location of school/colleges based on political; patronage rather than contraction of school age population Size of existing schools 3.Lack of adequate funds Most of the development counties are faced with the challenge of scarce resources available for allocation to various sectors of the economy Primary secondary and tertiary 4.Inaccurate and inadequate POPULATION DATA Planners find it difficult to estimate for instance how many classrooms, desks, books, teachers’ would be needed. They find it even more difficult to construct an educational age pyramid to assist them make adjustments in the provision of basic facilities. Plans cannot be comprehensive without accurate data 5.SHORTAGE PHYSICAL FACILITIES AND OTHER RESOURCES Availability of finances for the base of all development in schools including acquisition of facilities and other resources Many educational institutions in developing countries lack the basic facilities and resources for effective learning to take place many schools and semi permanent structure at the primary school level. For instance in Kenya approximately fifty percent of primary schools are housed in temporary, semi permanent and incomplete structures Lack of library, workshop, home science rooms and accompanying equipment is a major problem especially with the introduction of practical oriented curriculum (8-4-4) Lack of enough teaching, learning materials, books etc. 6. INSUFFICIENT QUALIFIED TEACHING PERSONNEL Since independence, Kenya and indeed other developing countries have experienced a significant amount of change in education curriculum , school organization, teaching methods, teachers training and recruitment. The problem of insufficient qualified number of teachers in education has been persistent The shortage of qualified teachers is not only in developing countries but rather it’s a global problem, even developed countries are experiencing the same problem .That is why the problem of “Brain Drain “has become pronounced. Qualified teachers are deserting their counties to developed countries for better pay. Poor pay for teachers also make teachers to desert teaching profession and join other professions. The economy sometime is not able to employ the qualified teachers to fill the gaps. This leads to a paradoxical situation whereby we have insufficient teachers at the school course on the hand and qualified teachers who are unemployed on the other. 7.Time element The educational planner face the problem of time lag between identification of the problem in the education system at the present and the time the solution is found and implemented. Factors contributing to high demand for education in Kenya today. - Economic benefits of education - Level of education of the parents - High competition in the labour market/ unemployment - High and or changing employment requirements - High government subsidy to education - Flexible educational programmes - Increase in number of educational institutions and programmes Justifications for the high government subsidy to education. - Externalities associated with acquisition of education. - Spill over benefits of education to the society - The positive relationship between education and economic growth - Need to produce highly qualified manpower - To reduce inequalities in and through education - It is an obligation of the government to provide education to its people - Education is a basic human right - It is a property right Page |
Posted on: Sun, 09 Mar 2014 11:06:42 +0000
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