Foreign Literature According to Benson (2004), parental involvement is a world of “multiple realities, so the challenge for educators and parents is to find ways to work collaboratively based on each other’s reality in the best interest of the child’s development, achievement and success. Partnership models provide conceptual scaffolding upon which collaborative relationships between parents and teachers can develop. While each partnership model has its strengths and weaknesses, their common feature is insisting on two-way communication between home and school. Partnerships need to be adapted to filt According to Hoover-Dempsey and Sandler (2005) are well known or insisting on the importance of the way parents construct their roles for their actual involvement. Belonging to different groups and associations means being subjected to their explicit and implicit norms and expectations which, as a consequence has the fact that over time these expectations get „recursive“, influencing the nature,patterns and intensity of parent involvement. Therefore, the heighth of group expectations also mediate the patterns of parental involvement According to John Holland , individuals are attracted to a given career by their particular personalities and numerous variables that constitute their backgrounds , first of all career choice is an expression of an extension of personality into the world of word followed by subsequent identification with specific occupational stereotypes. According, one chooses a career to satisfy preferred modal personal orientation . Modal personal orientation is a developmental process established through heredity and the individual has developed a strong dominant orientation , satisfaction is probable in corresponding occupational environment if however the orientation is one of indecision the livehood of satisfaction diminishes According to the study conducted by Garcez (2007) it was found out the by increasing career development activities , which includes setting career goal , students were more important however is that students were more satisfield about the education they were receiving .This will in turn hopefully lead the students having a deeper desire and commitment to succeed in their education . Another outcome of a higher self esteem is that those students chose move difficult goals than students which low self esteem .She noted that excellent detailed plan teaching parents and teacher how to fresh young students to set career goals the plan requires a total community effort through education ,parents and business students must given an opportunity to identify and explore their desired career s they can accomplish this through the “school to work transition’’ or job shadowing program’’ through the cooperative effort of the entire community students can identify career choice , set career goals and have higher self esteem an early age . Ultimate , they will further education and have a better chance of succeeding in ‘’do or die’’ world in which were Carneiro and Heckman (2002) review the US literature and add new evidence supporting the Paramount importance of long term factors, such as family background, over short term factors, Such as credit constraints. Since many of these background factors are correlated with family Income in the short term period when PSE decisions are made,it is often erroneously stated That this indicator of short term credit constraint is what prohibits low income individuals From attending PSE. Studies by Cameron and Heckman (1998,2001) Keane and Wolpin (2001), and Cunha,et al.(2006),to name but a few,also Support this conclusion. Similarly,Murray (2002) notes that successful (interms of income) Parents tend to have successful children.The implication of this research is that PSE participation is largely determined long before the actual point of entry into higher education And that relaxing short term credit constraints have only have a minimal effect on participation. Keane(2002:293), .Work-Life Balance The work-life quandary has been well documented by the literature. This is because the work-life balance has, to some extent, been identified as a social problem and has attracted a considerableamount of attention – including a legislative measure in April 2003 aimed ataddressing the work-life balance introduced in the United Kingdom (UK) (Houston 2005; Hyman, Scholarios & Baldry, 2005: 123). The fact that people still work between 15 and 17 hours per day demonstrates why the work-family life balance deserves attention. Kahn etal.(1964: 19), cited in Jeffery and Beutell (2001: 77), define family-work conflict as the:“Simultaneous occurrence of two (or more) sets of pressure such that compliance with onewould make more difficult compliance with the other”. Jeffrey and Beutell (2006) identify three major forms of work-family conflict, namely: (a) time-based conflict, (b) strain-based conflict and (c) behaviour-based conflict. However, for the purpose of this study, the main focus will be on time- and strain-based conflict, since behaviour-based conflict tends to involve the discipline of Psychology. Broadly speaking, time-based conflict relates to the allocation of hours available in a day to the various daily activities that individuals must perform. Consequently, according to Jeffery and Beutell (1985: 77): “Time spent on activities within one role generally cannot be devoted to activities within another role”. An examination of the literature suggests that taxi drivers work between 15-17 and 18-20 hours per day for seven days a week in both South Africa and the United States, respectively (Blasi & Leavitt, 2010:5, 21; Forrest, 20004: 24; Jugerson, 2002cited in Majeke, 2003: 26; SAPA , 1997: 12 cited in Mahlangu, 2002: 34). These long hours mean that taxi drivers have almost no time for anything else except work Outcome live The study of the outcomes of part-time HE study raise a range of challenges. First, there are few such studies. Secondly, the few that do exist are difficult to compare as they have different purposes and examine different types of students on different kinds of programmes at different periods after their studies (Adshead and Jamieson, 2007, Brennan et al.,2004,2005, Feinstein et al., 2007, Jamieson, 2007, Woodley and Simpson, 2001, Woodley and Wilson, 2002). All have a primary orientation to exploring the impact of part-time study on some aspect of subsequent employment, though all the studies reviewed point out that employment benefits are not the only ones of importance. The focus of all these studies is on whether and how graduates of part-time studies had benefited from their courses. It was noted by Feinstein et al., (2007) that part-time studies might be burdensome but this was seen as a trade-off for subsequent benefits. No authors reported any negative outcomes of part-time study either with respect to employment or other aspects of life. However, students who drop out and do not complete their courses are not examined. In relation to the concern of this study with careers guidance, it should be noted that none of the studies considered careers guidance as a variable affecting employment outcomes. A further potential source of information on the outcomes of part-time study is HESA’s Destinations of Leavers from Higher Education (DLHE). This is a survey that looks at the destinations of HE leavers up to three and a half years after they graduated. The first full-scale longitudinal survey was of alumni who left university in 2002/03 and took place in 2006/07. The survey includes graduates who studied both full and part-time. However, to date, significantly none of the published reports have analysed part-time students or compared them with full-time students . Three studies discussed other positive employment outcomes of part-time study as well as higher earnings, such as increased career opportunities, job or career changes, increased job satisfaction, and promotion (Brennan et al. 2006, Feinstein et al. 2007, Woodley and Wilson, 2002). In two studies employment outcomes were balanced against non-career personal and social objectives such increased self-confidence and self-development, better health, more community involvement, improvement in children’s schoolwork or improved relationships with family and friends, greater involvement with organisations and increases in social capital (Feinstein et al. 2007, Woodley and Wilson, 2002). All three studies discussed how complex the relationship is between career improvements of any kind, individual characteristics and motivations. All the studies found that career improvement as a motivation for study was positively associated with career outcomes. They also all explore how socio-economic and demographic variations between students are related to career outcomes. Woodley and Wilson (2002) were primarily interested in comparing career outcomes by age and by type of institution. Their data implies class and gender differences between students at different types of institution but thisis not specified or developed. Feinstein et al. (2007)attempted to link the benefits from study including career benefits to the socio-demographic characteristics of students, their reasons for studying, and their course type and subject. Brennan et al. (1999, 2000) focused only on post-graduation employment benefits of part-time students, but also explored these in terms of differential student attributes and students’ access to financial and time support. They found similar inequalities of outcome to those discussed above with regard to earnings, in relation to other indicators of employment such as career progression or changes in managerial responsibilities. They argue strongly that employment outcomes should not be used as “bald, absolute” measures of different courses, institutions or cohorts without reference to inequalities in the social composition of their students. They also imply that funding policies which favour employer support, will result in long-term disadvantage to part-time students who are less well placed to secure it. 20Woodley and Wilson surveyed over 4,000 mature graduates (aged over 21) three years after graduation, from a UK sample of universities and colleges and divided them into full-time, OU part-time and “other” part-time. This distinction is useful because “other” part-time were more likely to have taken a more vocational and less flexible course at a local university or college. They then constructed a typology of graduates according to age and modes of study. Here we consider only their findings in relation to part-time students over 25, classified as “Young mature” (25-29), “Middle mature” (30-39) and “Older mature (over 40). The authors found that OU “Middle mature” students, despite having jobs, high incomes, and average job satisfaction, nevertheless felt frustrated at not being able to use the knowledge from their degrees in the labour market. However, they had often not aimed for career change, and had studied subjects unrelated to their jobs. This contrasted with both “Young” and “Middle mature” “other” part-time graduates who felt that their studies had satisfied most of the career objectives. A smaller proportion of “Older mature” OU graduates were employed - they had retired, or were looking after families or studying further. If employed, they had high incomes, and were in permanent jobs, self-employed, or working part-time. “Older mature” “other” part-time graduates reported more use of degree skills in their jobs than their OU counterparts (Woodley and Wilson, 2002). Feinstein et al. (2007) studied graduates in the OU and Birk beck only a few months after graduation. Like the other two studies, they found that the degree of career-oriented motivation for studying determined both course of study and employment outcome. Partly corroborating Brennan et al.’s (2001) findings, they found that minority ethnic graduates’ expectations and motivations towards employment outcomes were higher than those of white graduates and that they were more likely to have selected courses to improve their employment prospects. In spite of this, their actual realisation of employment benefits was no different from those of white students. They also found that graduates funded by employers reported more employment benefits. Local studies According to the study conducted by Siguan Jr (1994) it was found out that the students self –concept showed no significant influence on their career preference the academic achievement of the students proved to be significant related to career preferences the school were students came from had no influence on their choice of career. He recommends that a more improved and functional guidance provided in school to help students make sound career choices. The guidance service in school must be collaborative effort of the administration guidance counselors and teacher classroom teacher are encouranged to do their best improving teaching learning processes, considering that academic achievement of the students influence their career preference . Another study conducted by Almerio (2003) it was found out a big picture of a big family with low educational attainment and inadequate investment was the sole foundation of choosing a course which was psychologically motivated their respondent ‘s level of preferred intelligence did not match to their chosen course . to their chosen course. This could be drawn from the required level of preferred intelligence . The necessity of developing a career development program was need in order to prevent any misfit and to assist students in the process of crystallizing their career in life she recommended that this program effectively implemented Personal interest , abilities the skills and values are the most influential factors in coming choosing occupation by the participant according to Pabiton (2007) . These imply that like other graduating students in collage school students the participants seemed to have chosen occupational . She also noted that the students be given all chances to learn and develop the skills and attitude required for various occupations. She recommends that career counselor could give more on this environmental factors during individual and small group career counseling According to Elmer (2004) career planning is a life making a journey to an unfamiliar destination without a map . He proposed a career from planning a career step in planning career goal setting and that guidance and counseling is intervention of underemployment individual and career preparedness be initiated.
Posted on: Wed, 31 Jul 2013 09:29:40 +0000
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