Ive been very fascinated lately in the fragile equilibrium established midway through the Hundred Years War. Despite Edward IIIs shattering victory over the French at Crécy the English in fact did not secure a great deal of France. Edward was compelled to accept a more moderate peace because he was well aware of Frances superiority. For example England had lost nearly everything it had on the continent after Philip II of Frances victory at Bouvines. Poor old King Jack has been given much criticism for this. In reality John had been astute in his diplomacy. He had recruited the emperor, Brittany, and Flanders to his banner. These proved insufficient to overcome the might of France, and England was badly defeated. It was simply Richards good fortune to have died from a crossbow bolt before his kingdom was whipped, conveniently enough leaving the blame for the failure of his French ambitions on his unfortunate brother. Edwards victory at Crécy the following century restored much of the Plantagenet lands in France to the English. But this limited achievement was hotly contested by the French for the next century, until at last King Harry, Henry V, rose to the throne of England. Henrys reign marks a remarkable achievement of diplomacy, and an equally remarkable failure. The situation had changed since Edwards time, and Henry was allowed more powerful allies than the likes of the Flemish as John could muster. In particular Englands policy rested upon two pillars, the Duchy of Brittany and the Duchy of Burgundy. Burgundy was initially a loyal Anglophobic appanage of the French Kingdom. Jean Sans Peur, literally John without fear, or, John the Fearless, attempted to rally Frances lords and nobles to resist the English. To achieve this purpose he had his useless cousin, René of Anjou, then acting regent of France in the madness of his brother King Charles VI, done away with. Renés murder was intended to cause John himself to be made regent of France, and it appears he genuinely intended to use this power to drive the English from the continent of Europe. The young Dauphin, however, future Charles VII, believed his uncle was intending to seize the crown for himself. So shortly after betraying Anjou John himself was betrayed and cut down on the bridge of Montereaux in 1419. Philip the Good thereupon became Duke of Burgundy with an eager desire to punish his relations in revenge for his fathers murder, and also because Philip the Good was an unusually aggressive and avaricious ruler seeking to increase his own power. Brittanys involvment with England was more straightforward. Of a proud independent Celtic tradition, protected witin its highly defensible peninsula, Brittany wished merely to escape the domination of France. And for this she felt England was her best ally. France had repeatedly intervened in Breton domestic politics to ensure subservient vassals, and Brittany had traditionally looked upon England for support, especially in the time of King John. Thus John VI of Brittany and Philip III of Burgundy were allied with Henry V of England against France. This combination, formed in 1419 even as Charles VI of France was incapable of any effective leadership, thoroughly checked the pretensions of France and secured the supremacy of England across the Kingdom. But while this may have been perpetuated to keep France in a position of weakness, the combination was ruined by the overweening ambitions of Henry. He had himself recognised as heir of France, and his son after him. He now desired the union of France and England, which was not at all to the liking of either Philip or John. Though Henry died in 1422, his son Henry VI became a rival for the throne of France with Charles VII upon the death of Charles VI later the same year. Burgundy remained nominally part of the English alliance until the Treaty of Arras in 1435. Brittany had already deserted England by that time. The departure of these two powerful allies during a critical time in Englands own internal affairs marked the end of the line. The English were rapidly defeated throughout France and expelled from the continent, save for Calais. By 1453 prospects were definitely not bright for Europe. France had surmounted the English challenge and was collecting steam. After the Treaty of Arras Philip the Good was busy gathering the lands of the Dutch nobles in the Low Countries, creating a significant power to the northeast of France. Like Austria and Prussia at a later date, Burgundy and France contested the leadership of what might already be termed the French nation. Burgundy alone could not defeat France. Philips son Charles the Bold grappled with his cousin Louis XII along the Somme and in Lorraine, where he fell in 1477. Things were much better for France now, Burgundy proper along with Artois and the Franche-Comté reverted to the French crown as a result of male primogeniture. The remainder, however, fell to Mary, the young daughter of Charles the Bold, who married Maximilian of Habsburg. The latter arrived with the support his father, the Emperor Frederick III, to defend the remainder of Marys territories. Louis was foiled, as he could have married his son Charles to Mary, and inherited the Netherlands for France. Nonetheless despite being deprived of Burgundys richer Benelux provinces, France had succeeded in eliminating Burgundy as a serious offensive threat to itself. The shadow of it under Austrian rule could only act defensively. Things were to get even better. Austrian diplomacy sought to rebuild the coalition of Henry V with Austria replacing England. Francis II of Brittany died in September of 1488, and his heir Anne had been betrothed to Maximilian. He would thus have acquired Brittany as well as Burgundy, uniting them behind Austria to encage France. France was able to slip this trap, however. Charles married Anne first, while Max was busy in Hungary, and this resulted in the eventual incorporation of Brittany into the French Kingdom. Frances acquisition of Englands continental territories, its union with Brittany, and its inheritance of much of Burgundy effectively eliminated all three as checks upon her power while simultaneously vastly increasing her own territory and resources. Consequently in 1490 France was the most powerful state in Europe. This required a new coalition. Unable to pin her down or destroy her, they relaxed their grip in the hope that they might yet restrain her. This gave rise to the Habsburg-Spanish alliance that sought to hem France in and repulse her pretensions around the compass. So the history of Western Europe is in many respects the history of denying France her natural role of domination of the continent. The combination of Brittany, England, and Flanders (whether native or Burgundian) was intended to prevent the resurgence of France. Once it had been kicked aside it was necessary to build another combination upon its ruins. It should also be noted the part Scotland played in this. French diplomacy was not idle. While England recruited Burgundy and Brittany to keep France down, France recruited Scotland to make trouble for the English in their own backyard. At times Scotlands alliance proved very beneficial to France, and as such it had to be eliminated as a factor in European diplomacy, which was finally achieved in the time of the Stuarts.
Posted on: Sat, 09 Nov 2013 10:37:48 +0000
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