Pluralism Besides being one of the worlds numerically largest faiths, Hinduism is also the oldest living major tradition on earth with roots reaching back into prehistory.[20] It is described as both the oldest of the worlds religions and the most diverse.[1][21][22][23] Hinduism has been variously defined as a religion, a religious tradition, and a set of religious beliefs.[2] Hinduism does not have a unified system of belief encoded in a declaration of faith or a creed,[24] but is rather an umbrella term comprising the plurality of religious phenomena originating in, and based on, the Vedic traditions.[25][26][27][28] Problems with a single definition of the term Hinduism are often attributed to the fact that Hinduism does not have a single historical founder. Also, Hinduism, or as some say Hinduisms, does not have a single system of salvation; each sect or denomination has different goals. According to the Supreme Court of India, Unlike other religions in the World, the Hindu religion does not claim any one Prophet, it does not worship any one God, it does not believe in any one philosophic concept, it does not follow any one act of religious rites or performances; in fact, it does not satisfy the traditional features of a religion or creed. It is a way of life and nothing more.[11][29] Commonalities Most Hindu traditions revere a body of religious or sacred literature, the Vedas, although there are exceptions. Some Hindu religious traditions regard particular rituals as essential for salvation, but a variety of views on this co-exist. Some Hindu philosophies postulate a theistic ontology of creation, of sustenance, and of the destruction of the universe, yet some Hindus are atheists. Hinduism is sometimes characterized by a belief in reincarnation (samsara) determined by the law of karma and the idea that salvation is freedom from this cycle of repeated birth and death. However, other religions of the region, such as Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism, also believe in karma, outside the scope of Hinduism.[24] Hinduism is therefore viewed as the most complex of all the living, historical world religions.[30] Indigenous understanding A definition of Hinduism is further complicated by the frequent use of the term faith as a synonym for religion.[24] Some academics[31] and many practitioners refer to Hinduism, using a native definition, as Sanātana Dharma, a Sanskrit phrase meaning the eternal law or the eternal way.[32][33] To its adherents, Hinduism is the traditional way of life.[34] Because of the wide range of traditions and ideas covered by the term, arriving at a comprehensive definition is difficult.[24] A definition of Hinduism given by the first Vice President of India who was also a prominent theologian, Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, states that Hinduism is not just a faith but in itself is related to the union of reason and intuition. Radhakrishnan explicitly states that Hinduism cannot be defined, but is only to be experienced.[35] Western understanding Hinduisms tolerance to variations in belief and its broad range of traditions make it difficult to define as a religion according to traditional Western conceptions.[36] Some academics suggest that Hinduism can be seen as a category with fuzzy edges rather than as a well-defined and rigid entity. Some forms of religious expression are central to Hinduism and others, while not as central, still remain within the category. Based on this idea Ferro-Luzzi has developed a Prototype Theory approach to the definition of Hinduism.[37] Colonial influences The study of India and its cultures and religions has been shaped by the interests of colonialism and by Western notions of religion.[38][39] Since the 1990s, those influences and its outcomes have been the topic of debate among scholars of Hinduism[38][note 1] , and have also been taken over by critics of the Western view on India.[40][note 2] The notion of Hinduism as a single world religious tradition[41] was developed by 19th-century European Indologists who depended on the brahmana castes[41] for their information of Indian religions.[41] This led to a tendency to emphasize Vedic and Brahmanical texts and beliefs as the essence of Hindu religiosity in general, and in the modern association of Hindu doctrine with the various Brahmanical schools of the Vedanta (in particular Advaita Vedanta).[42] Sweetman identifies several areas in which there is substantial, if not universal, agreement that colonialism influenced the study of Hinduism:[43] The establishment by European Orientalists of a textual basis for Hinduism, akin to the Protestant culture,[43] which was driven by a preference among the colonial powers for written authority rather than oral authority.[43] The influence of Brahmins on European conceptions of Hinduism.[43] Colonialism has been a significant factor in the reinforcement of the Brahmana castes and the brahmanisation[44] of Hindu society.[44] The Brahmana castes preserved the texts which were studied by Europeans and provided access to them. The authority of those texts was expanded by being the focus of study by Europeans.[43] Brahmins and Europeans scholars shared a perception of a general decline from an originally pure religion.[43] The identification of Vedanta, and specifically Advaita Vedanta, as the paradigmatic example of the mystical nature of the Hindu religion[43][note 3] and the central philosophy of the Hindus.[43] Several factors led to the favouring of Advaita Vedanta:[45] Fear of French influence, especially the impact of the French Revolution; the hope was that the supposed quietist and conservative nature of Vedantic thought would prevent the development of revolutionary sentiment;[46] The predominance of Idealism in nineteenth century European philosophy;[47] The amenability of Vedantic thought to both Christian and Hindu critics of idolatry in other forms of Hinduism.[47] The European conception of caste which dismissed former political configurations and insisted upon an essentially religious character of India.[48] During the colonial period, caste was defined as a religious system and was divorced from political powers.[47] This made it possible for the colonial rulers to portray India as a society characterised by spiritual harmony in contrast to the former Indian states which they criticized as despotic and epiphenomenal[47], with the colonial powers providing the necessary benevolent, paternalistic rule by a more advanced nation.[47] The construction of Hinduism in the image of Christianity[49] as a systematic, confessional, all-embracing religious entity.[49] Several forces played a role in this construction: The European scholarship which studied India,[49] The acts of policy of the colonial state,[49] Anti-colonial Hindus[50] looking toward the systematisation of disparate practices as a means of recovering a precolonial, national identity.[49][note 4] Typology Main article: Hindu denominations The Swaminarayan Akshardham Temple in Delhi, according the Guinness World Records is the World’s Largest Comprehensive Hindu Temple[51] Hinduism as it is commonly known can be subdivided into a number of major currents. Of the historical division into six darsanas, only two schools, Vedanta and Yoga, survive. The main divisions of Hinduism today are Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism and Smartism.[52] Hinduism also recognizes numerous divine beings subordinate to the Supreme Being or regards them as lower manifestations of it.[53] Other notable characteristics include a belief in reincarnation and karma as well as a belief in personal duty, or dharma. McDaniel - six generic types McDaniel (2007) distinguishes six generic types of Hinduism, in an attempt to accommodate a variety of views on a rather complex subject:[54] Folk Hinduism, based on local traditions and cults of local deities and extending back to prehistoric times, or at least prior to written Vedas. Shrauta or Vedic Hinduism as practised by traditionalist brahmins (Shrautins). Vedantic Hinduism, including Advaita Vedanta (Smartism), based on the philosophical approach of the Upanishads. Yogic Hinduism, especially the sect based on the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali. Dharmic Hinduism or daily morality, based on Karma and upon societal norms such as Vivāha (Hindu marriage customs). Bhakti or devotionalist practices Michaels - Hindu religions and Hindu religiosity Michaels distinguishes three Hindu religions and four forms of Hindu religiosity.[55] The division into three Hindu religions corresponds with the Indian division of ritual practice into Vedic (vaidika), village and folk religions (gramya), and sectarian (agama or tantra).[56] The three Hindu religions are: Brahmanic-Sanskritic Hinduism: a polytheistic, ritualistic, priestly religion that centers on extended-family domestic and sacrificial rituals and appeals to a corpus of Vedic texts as an authority.[55] Brahmanic-Sanskritic Hinduism takes a central place in most treatises on Hinduism because it fulfills many criteria for a definition of religion and because in many regions of India it is the dominant religion into which the non-Brahman population groups strive to assimilate.[55][note 5] Folk religions and tribal religions: polytheistic, sometimes animistic, local religions with an extensive oral tradition. Often in tension with Brahmanic-Sanskritic Hinduism.[57] Founded religions: salvation religions with monastic communities, usually ascetic, often anti-Brahmanic.[55] Three subgroups can be distinguished: Sectarian religions: for example Vaishnavism and Shaivism.[57] Syncretically founded religions: Hindu-Islamic (Sikhism), Hindu-Buddhist (Newar-Buddhism), Hindu-Christian mixed religions like Neohinduism.[57] Founded, proselytizing religions, Guru-ism: groups like Maharishi Mahesh Yogi and Transcendental Meditation, Satya Sai Baba and the Satya Sai Federation, Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada and the ISKCON, Maharaj Ji and the Divine Light Mission, Osho.[57] The four forms of Hindu religiosity are: Ritualism: Vedic-Brahmanistic domestic and sacrificial ritualism, but also some forms of Tantrism.[56] This is the classical karma-marga, the path of action.[58] Spiritualism: intellectual religiosity, aimed at individual liberation, often under guidance of a guru. It is characteristic of Advaita Vedanta, Kashmir Shaivism, Shaiva Siddhanta, Neo-Vedanta, moden esoteric Guruism, and some sorts of Tantrism.[56] This is the classical jnana-marga.[58] Devotionalism: mystical worship of a God, as in bhakti and Krishnaism.[56] This is the classical bhakti-marga.[58] Heroism: a polytheistic form of religiosity rooted in militaristic traditions, such as Ramaism and parts of political Hindusim.[56] This is also called virya-marga.[58] History Periodisation Outline of South Asian history History of Indian subcontinent Stone age (7000–3000 BC)[show] Bronze age (3000–1300 BC)[show] Iron age (1700–26 BC)[show] Middle Kingdoms (1–1279 AD)[show] Late medieval age (1206–1596 AD)[show] Early modern period (1526–1858 AD)[show] Other states (1102–1947 AD)[show] Colonial period (1505–1961 AD)[show] Kingdoms of Sri Lanka[show] Nation histories[show] Regional histories[show] Specialised histories[show] v t e The so-called Shiva Pashupati seal, Indus Valley civilization. Navy shoulderboard for Hindu military chaplain, South African military Main article: History of Hinduism James Mill (1773-1836), in his The History of British India (1817),[59] distinguished three phases in the history of India, namely Hindu, Muslim and British civilisations.[59][60] This periodisation has been criticised, for the misconceptions it has given rise to.[61] Another periodisation is the division into ancient, classical, medieaval and modern periods.[62] Smart[63] and Michaels[64] seem to follow Mills periodisation,[note 6], while Flood[65] and Muesse[67][68] follow the ancient, classical, medieaval and modern periods periodisation.[69] Different periods are designated as classical Hinduism: Smart calls the period between 1000 BCE and 100 CE pre-classical. Its the formative period for the Upanishads and Brahmanism[note 7], Jainism and Buddhism. For Smart, the classical period lasts from 100 to 1000 CE, and coincides with the flowering of classical Hinduism and the flowering and deterioration of Mahayana-buddhism in India.[71] For Michaels, the period between 500 BCE and 200 BCE is a time of Ascetic reformism[72], whereas the period between 200 BCE and 1100 CE is the time of classical Hinduism, since there is a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions.[73] Muesse discerns a longer period of change, namely between 800 BCE and 200 BCE, which he calls the Classical Period: ...this was a time when traditional religious practices and beliefs were reassessed. The brahmins and the rituals they performed no longer enjoyed the same prestige they had in the Vedic pariod.[74] According to Muesse, some of the fundamental concepts of Hinduism, namely karma, reincarnation and personal enlightenment and transformation, which did not exist in the Vedic religion, developed in this time: Indian philosophers came to regard the human as an immortal soul encased in a perishable body and bound by action, or karma, to a cycle of endless existences.[75]
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