ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3612516/ Prefrontal lactate predicts exercise-induced cognitive dysfunction in Gulf War Illness Rakib U Rayhan,1 Megna P Raksit,3 Christian R Timbol,1 Oluwatoyin Adewuyi,1 John W VanMeter,2 and James N Baraniuk1 Author information ► Article notes ► Copyright and License information ► Go to: Abstract Background: 25% to 30% of Veterans deployed to the 1990 to 1991 Persian Gulf War exhibit an idiopathic syndrome of chronic fatigue, exertional exhaustion, pain, hyperalgesia, cognitive and affective dysfunction known as Gulf War Illness (GWI). Methods: Gulf War veterans (n=15) and sedentary veteran and civilian controls (n=11) completed a 2-back working memory test in an fMRI before and after two bicycle exercise stress test. We performed single voxel 1H MRS to evaluate brain metabolic differences in the left anterior cingulate cortex and the changes associated with exercise. Results: Eight GWI subjects increased their 2-back scores after exercise (labelled increasers) and seven GWI subjects decreased their 2-back scores after exercise (labelled decreasers). These phenotypic responses were absent for controls. Decreasers had significantly elevated prefrontal lactate levels compared to Increasers prior to completion of the exercise stress tests. Evaluation of prefrontal lactate levels prior to exercise demonstrated predictability (ROC analysis) of the two diametrically opposed subgroups. Conclusion: Prefrontal lactate levels may be a potential biomarker for exercise-induced subgroups in GWI. The alterations in brain energetics may be in part responsible for a subgroup of GWI and underlie some of the symptoms present in the patient population. Keywords: Gulf War Illness (GWI), pre-frontal lactate, exercise-induced cognitive dysfunction, biomarker Go to: Introduction Gulf War Illness (GWI), also known as Chronic Multi-symptom Illness (CMI), affects approximately a quarter of the one million military personnel who served in the 1990 - 1991 Persian Gulf War [The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control1,The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control2]. Veterans with GWI present with symptoms of cognitive dysfunction, chronic fatigue, and widespread pain that overlap with a larger group of idiopathic illnesses that include Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (CFS) [The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control3], Myalgic encephalomyelitis [The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control4] and fibromyalgia [The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control5-The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control8]. A common complaint is exertional exhaustion [The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control1]. Physiological stressors such as exercise at greater than usual levels leads to an exacerbation of symptoms that may develop immediately or be characteristically delayed as long as 24 hours [The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control2,The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control4]. Experimental exercise models demonstrate acute symptom exacerbations in these disorders [The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control9-The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control11]. In animal models, exercise-induced pain, hyperalgesia and fatigue were not attributed to lactate build-up in peripheral muscles [The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control12]. Instead, up - regulation of expression for the immediate early gene c-fos in brainstem nuclei and dysfunctional brain energetics suggested that central mechanisms may be responsible for exercise-induced changes in muscular performance, decreased activity (“fatigue”), and hyperalgesia (pain and tenderness) [The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control13]. These studies suggest the hypothesis that differences in brain energetics may be associated to the heterogeneity of exercise-induced symptom exacerbations in GWI. Glucose has traditionally been considered the principal energy source for the brain [The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control14]. However, recent findings in brain energetics suggest that lactate is an alternative fuel under conditions of high neural demand for energy metabolism during cognition and memory acquisition [The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control15,The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control16]. Cerebral lactate metabolism is maintained by an interaction between astrocytes and neurons known as the astrocyte - neuron lactate shuttle [The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control14]. Astrocytes generate and release lactate into the brain interstitial fluid. Neurons import the lactate and convert it to pyruvate for use in mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation [The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control14]. Lactate is a more efficient starting point for oxidative respiration than glucose since the neuron has a net gain of one ATP molecule, and the glucose can be reserved for skeletal muscle ATP production [The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control17,The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control18]. Lactate derived from exercising muscles is another energy source for neurons [The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control17]. Proton – coupled monocarboxylate transporters (MCT) shuttle lactate across the blood - brain barrier and through astrocytes to neurons and other cells. Under normal conditions, astrocytes supply lactate by glycolysis followed by lactate export, and during muscular exercise by absorption of lactate from across the blood – brain barrier into the neuropil [The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control14,The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control17]. The flux is efficient so importation matches neural energy needs and brain lactate levels do not rise [The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control19]. In contrast, elevated brain lactate has been associated with disrupted metabolite homeostasis, mitochondrial failure, and neuronal dysfunction in conditions such as aging [The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control20]. Eighty percent of the energy consumed by the brain is for neuronal activity, with glutamate as the predominant neurotransmitter which is known to play a vital role in memory function [The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control19,The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control21]. Astrocytes play a critical role in glutamatergic neuronal activity. They ensheath synapses and rapidly absorb the glutamate that is released [The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control14]. The glutamate is converted to glutamine that is then exported to neurons for conversion back into glutamate. This pathway is the glutamate - glutamine cycle. The molecular spectroscopy ratio of glutamate to glutamine is a measure of astrocyte function [The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control22]. High glutamate turnover in astrocytes triggers glycolysis and the production of lactate that is shuttled to neurons. These processes link the glutamate – glutamine cycle and lactate shuttle in astrocytes. Astrocyte dysfunction leads to impaired synaptic glutamate clearance with inappropriately high synaptic glutamate concentrations and dysregulated neuronal activity [The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control23]. There is no information on either of these indices in GWI, or their responses to exercise. Lactate in the cerebral ventricles of CFS subjects is significantly higher than anxiety, major depression, and healthy volunteers [The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control24-The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control26]. Our own receiver operator analysis of the published data suggested an upper threshold of 0.5 institutional units for lactate for a combined anxiety and healthy volunteer group with sensitivity of 0.65 and specificity of 0.88 to discriminate from CFS values [The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control26]. Frequency analysis of the CFS lactate distribution data demonstrated a wide range of levels suggesting a continuum or potential bimodal distribution. These authors did not find differences in lactate for brain parenchyma at rest between CFS and controls. There is no information on lactate after exercise. Based on these data and the subjective overlap of GWI and CFS subjects, we predicted that GWI subjects would also show heterogeneous lactate levels. Molecular spectroscopy evidence of heterogeneous astrocyte - neuron lactate shuttle and glutamate – glutamine cycle dynamics were also anticipated to possibly show distinctions before and after exercise. These studies are of importance since the relationships between exercise - induced changes in brain metabolites, energetics and cognitive function have not been studied in GWI. Furthermore, biomarkers defined by molecular spectroscopy may be valuable for defining subsets, pathophysiological mechanisms, and responses to treatments. In order to address these issues, functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scans were performed at baseline prior to, and immediately following, two bicycle exercise stress tests. The second fMRI scan demonstrated post - exertional changes in the brain. Cognition was tested during each fMRI scan using the letter variant 2-back working memory paradigm [The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control27]. Working memory is a system that actively retains multiple fragments of information during goal directed behavior that is used at later moments in cognitive operations [The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control28]. The cognitive testing revealed 2 GWI subsets that had diametrically opposite working memory responses to exercise and may represent functional phenotypes. Metabolite concentrations were measured by single voxel 1H magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) in the left anterior cingulate cortex. This region is dysfunctional in prolonged pain, fatigue, and affective disorders [The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control29,The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control30]. The level of lactate in this region before and after exercise was the primary outcome planned for this study. Go to: Materials and methods Subjects and recruitment The protocol was approved by Georgetown University Institutional Review Board and USAMRMC Human Research Protection Office (HRPO #A-15547.0) (clinicaltrials.gov identification number NCT01291758). The participant pool composed of 11 age and gender matched controls and 15 CMI subjects who also met CFS criteria (Georgetown University IRB #2009-229). All subjects signed informed consent, completed questionnaires, and physical examinations to validate CMI and CFS diagnosis. On – line questionnaires assessed an extensive set of psychometric qualities to investigate the distinctions between CMI, CFS and control subjects [The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control31]. The current analysis is focused on pre – and post – exercise working memory accuracy scores and metabolite concentrations for subjects who met both CMI and CFS criteria. Pre-arrival instructions and questionnaires Fatigue was assessed with the ordinal fatigue rating and verified with the Chalder fatigue scale [The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control32,The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control33]. The ordinal fatigue assessment was anchored with 0 = no complaint, 1 = trivial, 2 = mild, 3 = moderate or 4 = severe intensity [The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control32,The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control34]. Inclusion of “trivial” allowed participants to verify complaints that were present but not bothersome enough to warrant treatment and/or other lifestyle changes [The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control35]. Subjective pain perceptions were quantified with the McGill short form with its sensory, affective and total scores [The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control36]. Relative disability and quality of life were compared using the Medical Outcomes Survey Short Form 36 (SF-36) [The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control37]. Protocol Upon arrival to the Georgetown University Clinical Research Unit, subjects reviewed and signed their informed consent forms to participate in this four day protocol. On the 1st day, all subjects had history and physical examinations to assess CMI [The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control2] and CFS [The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control3] criteria, blood tests, and had a tour of the facilities. On the 2nd day subjects completed a pre-exercise (baseline) fMRI scan prior to the 1st bicycle exercise stress test. On the 3rd day, subjects completed their second, identical bicycle exercise stress test followed by a post-exercise fMRI and MRS scan, which was on average within 1 hour of the stress test. The 4th day was their discharge day. The neuroimaging analysis included 1H MRS, functional MRI (fMRI) during the working memory paradigm, structural/anatomic acquisition, and white matter diffusion tensor imaging. This study focuses on 1H MRS spectroscopy data and other fMRI data will be reported separately. To assess changes in cognition, we used the working memory N-back paradigm during both fMRI scans. Prior to both fMRI scans, subjects completed N-back practice sessions on a computer. Blocks of 9 randomized letters (A, B, C, D) were presented. Subjects were given instructions to respond by pressing a button for the same letter (“0-Back”) or the one seen 2 letters previously (“2-Back”). Blocks for 0-back then 2-back tasks were presented for 5 cycles. A total score of 35 letters correct were possible during the 2-back working memory cognitive paradigm. Bicycle stress tests Two protocols were evaluated. First, standard VO2MAX cardiopulmonary stress tests were performed using Vmax equipment and software (SensorMedix) [The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control38,The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control39]. Second, subjects had submaximal stress tests at 70% predicted heart rate for 25 minutes which was followed by a brief climb to 85% heart rate to standardize exertion on a Schwinn AirDyne bicycle using the Vmax software and equipment (SensorMedix) [The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control40]. Cardiac stress tests were negative and ruled out arrhythmias, ischemias, or other alterations. Outcomes related to the stress tests will be described in greater detail elsewhere. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and MRI spectroscopy (MRS) Data was acquired on a Siemens 3T Tim Trio scanner equipped using a transmit-receive body coil and commercial twelve-element head coil array. Structural 3D T1-weighted MPRAGE images parameters were: TE= 2.52 ms, TR= 1900 ms, TI= 900 ms, FOV= 250 mm, 176 slices, slice resolution= 1.0 mm, voxel size 1x1x1 mm. All MPRAGE images were processed using the Statistical Parametric Mapping software package (SPM8, Wellcome Department of Imaging Neuroscience, London, UK), which was run on MATLAB 10b (The MathWorks Inc., Natick, MA, USA). Single voxel spectroscopy was used to assess metabolite concentrations. A voxel of 2 x 2 x 2 cm3 on edge (8.0 ml) was placed over the left anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) (Figure 1). Single voxel spectroscopy of 1H MRS uses the volume localized STEAM sequence with echo times (TE) of 20ms–144ms, repetition time (TR) 2000ms, modulation time TM 10ms, 300 transients, spectral width of 3 kHz, 1k complex data points. Automatic outer volume suppression (7 min scan) eliminated lipid and water signals. Figure 1 Voxel placement and 2-back working memory scores. A. A single voxel was placed in the left anterior cingulate cortex to obtain metabolite concentrations. B. Before exercise, controls had significantly higher accuracies compared to CMI subjects (*P
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