4:46 History of Kashmir Further information: History of Azad Kashmir This article covers the history of Kashmir from earliest recorded times to the present day. The history of Kasheer , commonly known as Kashmir or Cashmere in the Asia and Western world is intertwined with the history of a larger region, comprising the areas of Central Asia ,Afghanistan , India , Pakistan , Tajikistan, Tibet, china [1][2] Once a major empire of superpower [3] proportions Kashmir has continually reasserted its Cultural identity throughout the centuries and has developed as a distinct political, social and cultural entity. Kashmir is part to the worlds oldest continuous major civilization and culture, with historical and urban settlements dating back to Pre Mahabharat era. Today, it denotes a larger area that includes the Indian-administered state of Jammu and Kashmir (which consists of Jammu, the Kashmir Valley, and Ladakh), the Pakistan- administered territories of Azad Kashmir and Gilgit–Baltistan, and the Chinese-administered regions of Aksai Chin and the Trans-Karakoram Tract. In the first half of the 1st millennium, the Kashmir region became an important centre of Hinduism and later of Buddhism; later still, in the ninth century, Kashmir Shaivism arose.[1] The Islamic conquest of Kashmir (1300AD) ended the Political identity and was a turning point in history. Islamicization in Kashmir took place during 13th to 15th century and led to the eventual decline of the Absolute monothiesm in Kashmir. However, the achievements of the previous civilizations were not lost, but were to a great extent absorbed by the new Islamic polity and culture which gave rise to Modern Kashmir Sufi Mysticism.In 13th century Kashmir fell under rule of Turks. In 1349, Shah Mir became the first Muslim ruler of Kashmir, inaugurating the Salatin-i-Kashmir or Swati dynasty.[2] For the next five centuries, Muslim monarchs ruled Kashmir, including the Mughals, who ruled from 1526 until 1751, and the Afghan Durrani Empire, which ruled from 1747 until 1820.[2] That year, the Sikhs, under Ranjit Singh, annexed Kashmir.[2] In 1846, after the Sikh defeat in the First Anglo-Sikh War, and upon the purchase of the region from the British under the Treaty of Amritsar, the Raja of Jammu, Gulab Singh, became the new ruler of Kashmir. The rule of his descendants, under the paramountcy (or tutelage) of the British Crown, lasted until 1947, when the former princely state became a disputed territory, now administered by three countries: India, Pakistan, and the Peoples Republic of China. Etymology See also: Timeline of the Kashmir conflict General view of Temple and Enclosure of Marttand or the Sun, near Bhawan. Probable date of temple AD 490-555. Probable date of colonnade AD 693-729. Photograph of the Surya Temple at Martand in Jammu & Kashmir taken by John Burke in 1868. According to folk etymology, the name Kashmir means desiccated land (from the Sanskrit : Ka = water and shimeera = desiccate). In the Rajatarangini , a history of Kashmir written by Kalhana in the mid-12th century, it is stated that the valley of Kashmir was formerly a lake. According to Hindu mythology, the lake was drained by the great rishi or sage, Kashyapa , son of Marichi, son of Brahma, by cutting the gap in the hills at Baramulla ( Varaha-mula ). When Kashmir had been drained, Kashyapa asked Brahmans to settle there. Rishi Kashyapa, reclaimed the land of the Kashmir valley from a vast lake, known as Satisar, named after goddess Sati, the consort of Lord Shiva. [4] The name of Kashyapa is by history and tradition connected with the draining of the lake, and the chief town or collection of dwellings in the valley was called Kashyapa-pura or by other sources Kashyapa- mar, which has been identified with Kaspapyros of Hecataeus ( apud Stephanus of Byzantium ) and Kaspatyros of Herodotus (3.102, 4.44). [5] Kashmir is also believed to be the country meant by Ptolemy s Kaspeiria . [6] Cashmere is an archaic spelling of Kashmir, and in some countries it is still spelled this way. According to the Mahabharata, [7] the Kambojas ruled Kashmir during the epic period with a Republican system of government[8] from the capital city of Karna-Rajapuram-gatva- Kambojah-nirjitastava ., [9][10] shortened to Rajapura, [11][12][13][14] which has been identified with modern Rajauri . [15] Later, the Panchalas are stated to have established their sway. The name Peer Panjal , which is a part of modern Kashmir, is a witness to this fact. Panjal is simply a distorted form of the Sanskritic tribal term Panchala. The Muslims prefixed the word peer to it in memory of Siddha Faqir and the name thereafter is said to have changed into Peer Panjal. [16] According to legend, Jammu was founded by Hindu King Raja Jambu lochan in the 14th century BC. During one of his hunting campaigns he reached the Tawi River where he saw a goat and a lion drinking water at the same place. The king was impressed and decided to set up a town after his name, Jamboo . With the passage of time, the name was corrupted and became Jammu. Early history Further information: Rajatarangini , Kushan Empire , Huna people and Buddhism in Kashmir This general view of the unexcavated Buddhist stupa near Baramulla , with two figures standing on the summit, and another at the base with measuring scales, was taken by John Burke in 1868. The stupa, which was later excavated, dates to 500 CE. Earliest Neolithic sites in the flood plains of Kashmir valley are dated to c. 3000 BCE. Most important of these sites are the settlements at Burzahom, which had two Neolithic and one Megalithic phases. First phase (c. 2920 BCE) at Burzahom is marked by mud plastered pit dwellings, coarse pottery and stone tools. In the second phase, which lasted till c. 1700 BCE, houses were constructed on ground level and the dead were buried, sometimes with domesticated and wild animals. Hunting and fishing were the primary modes of subsistence though evidence of cultivation of wheat, barley, and lentils has also been found in both the phases. [17][18] In the megalithic phase, massive circles were constructed and grey or black burnish replaced coarse red ware in pottery. [19] During the later Vedic period , as kingdoms of the Vedic tribes expanded, the Uttara–Kurus settled in Kashmir. [20][21] Pot, excavated from Burzahom (c. 2700 BCE), depicts horned motifs, which suggest links with sites like Kot-Diji, in Sindh . In 326 BCE, Porus asked Abisares, the king of Kashmir, to aid him against Alexander the Great in the Battle of Hydaspes . After Porus lost the battle, Abhisares submitted to Alexander by sending him treasure and elephants. [22][23] During the reign of Ashoka (304–232 BCE), Kashmir became a part of the Maurya Empire and Buddhism was introduced in Kashmir. During this period, many stupas , some shrines dedicated to Shiva, and the city of Srinagari ( Srinagar) were built. [24] Kanishka (127–151 CE), an emperor of the Kushan dynasty , conquered Kashmir and established the new city of Kanishkapur. [25] Buddhist tradition holds that Kanishka held the third Buddhist council in Kashmir, in which celebrated scholars such as Ashvagosha , Nagarjuna and Vasumitra took part. [26] By the fourth century, Kashmir became a seat of learning for both Buddhism and Hinduism. Kashmiri Buddhist missionaries helped spread Buddhism to Tibet and China and from the fifth century CE, pilgrims from these countries started visiting Kashmir. [27] Kumārajīva (343–413 CE) was among the renowned Kashmiri scholars who traveled to China. He influenced the Chinese emperor Yao Xing and spearheaded translation of many Sanskrit works into Chinese at the Changan monastery. [28] Hepthalites (White Huns) under Toramana crossed over the Hindukush mountains and conquered large parts of western India including Kashmir. [29] His son Mihirakula (c. 502–530 CE) led a military campaign to conquer all of North India . He was opposed by Baladitya in Magadha and eventually defeated by Yasodharman in Malwa . After the defeat, Mihirakula returned to Kashmir where he led a coup on the king. He then conquered of Gandhara where he committed many atrocities on Buddhists and destroyed their shrines. Influence of the Huns faded after Mihirakulas death. [30][31] After seventh century, significant developments took place in Kashmiri Hinduism. In the centuries that followed, Kashmir produced many poets, philosophers, and artists who contributed to Sanskrit literature and Hindu religion. [32] Among notable scholars of this period was Vasugupta (c. 875–925 CE) who wrote the Shiva Sutras which laid the foundation for a monistic Shaiva system called Kashmir Shaivism. Dualistic interpretation of Shaiva scripture was defeated by Abhinavagupta (c. 975–1025 CE) who wrote many philosophical works on Kashmir Shaivism. [33] Kashmir Shaivism came to dominate lives of ordinary people in Kashmir and strongly influenced Shaivism in Southern India . [34] Extent of the Karkota Empire in the eighth century CE. In the eighth century, Karkota dynasty established themselves as rulers of Kashmir. [35] Kashmir grew as an imperial power under the Karkotas. Chandrapida of this dynasty was recognized by an imperial order of the Chinese emperor as the king of Kashmir. His successor Lalitaditya Muktapida lead a successful military campaign against the Tibetans. He then defeated Yashovarman of Kanyakubja and subsequently conquered eastern kingdoms of Magadha, Kamarupa, Gauda , and Kalinga. Lalitaditya extended his influence of Malwa and Gujarat and defeated Arabs at Sindh . [36][37] After his demise, Kashmirs influence over other kingdoms declined and the dynasty ended in c. 855–856 CE. [35] Utpala dynasty founded by Avantivarman followed the Kakrotas. His successor Shankaravarman (885–902 CE) led a successful military campaign against Gurjaras in Punjab. [38][35] Political instability in the 10th century made the royal body guards (Tantrins) very powerful in Kashmir. Under the Tantrins, civil administration collapsed and chaos reigned in Kashmir till they were defeated by Chakravarman. [39] Queen Didda, who descended from the Hindu Shahis of Kabul on her mothers side, took over as the ruler in second half of the 10th century. [35] After her death in 1003 CE, the throne passed to Lohara dynasty . [40] During the 11th century, Mahmud of Ghazni made two attempts to conquer Kashmir. However, both his campaigns failed because he could not siege the fortress at Lohkot. [41] Muslim rule: Kashmir Sultanate (1346-1586) and the Mughals (1589-1857) Gateway of enclosure, (once a Hindu temple) of Zein-ul-ab-ud-dins Tomb, in Srinagar. Probable date AD 400 to 500 , 1868. John Burke. Oriental and India Office Collection. British Library. The oppressive taxation, corruption, internecine fights, and rise of feudal lords (Damaras ) during the unpopular rule of the Lohara dynasty (1003–1320 CE) paved way for foreign invasions of Kashmir. [42] Suhadeva, last king of the Lohara dynasty, fled Kashmir after Zulju (Dulacha), a Turkic – Mongol chief, lead a savage raid on Kashmir. [43][44] Rinchana, a Tibetan Buddhist refugee in Kashmir, established himself as the ruler after Zulju. [45][43] Rinchanas conversion to Islam is a subject of Kashmiri folklore. He was persuaded to accept Islam by his minister Shah Mir, probably for political reasons. Islam had penetrated into countries outside Kashmir and in absence of the support from Hindus, who were in a majority, [46] Rinchana needed the support of the Kashmiri Muslims. [45] Shah Mirs coup on Rinchanas successor secured Muslim rule and the rule of his dynasty in Kashmir. [46] In the 14th century, Islam gradually became the dominant religion in Kashmir. Islamic preacher Sheikh Nooruddin Noorani, who is traditionally revered by Hindus as Nund Rishi, combined elements of Kashmir Shaivism with Sufi mysticism in his discourses. [47] The Sultans between 1354–1470 CE were tolerant of other religions with the exception of Sultan Sikandar (1389–1413 CE). Sultan Sikandar imposed taxes on non–Muslims, forced conversions to Islam, and earned the title But–Shikan for destroying idols. [43] Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin (c. 1420–1470 CE) invited artists and craftsmen from Central Asia and other outside regions to train local artists in Kashmir. Under his rule the arts of wood carving, papier-mâché , shawl and carpet weaving prospered. [48] For a brief period in the 1470s, states of Jammu , Poonch and Rajauri which paid tributes to Kashmir revolted against the Sultan Hajji Khan. However, they were subjugated by his son Hasan Khan who took over as ruler in 1472 CE. [48] By the mid 16th century, Hindu influence in the courts and role of the Hindu priests had declined as Muslim missionaries immigrated into Kashmir from Central Asia and other outside regions. Around the same period, the nobility of Chaks had become powerful enough to unseat the Shah Mir dynasty. [48] Silver sasnu of the Kashmir Sultan Shams al- Din Shah II (ruled 1537-38). During the Sultanate period, the Kashmir sultans issued silver and copper coins. The silver coins were square and followed weighed between 91 grams (0.201 lb)–96 grams (0.212 lb). [49] Mughal general Mirza Muhammad Haidar Dughlat, a member of ruling family in Kashgar , invaded Kashmir in c. 1540 CE on behalf of emperor Humayun. [43][50] Persecution of Shias, Shafiis , and Sufis and instigation by Suri kings led to a revolt which overthrew Dughlats rule in Kashmir. [51][50] Kashmir did not witness direct Mughal rule till the reign of Mughal king Akbar who visited the valley himself in 1589 CE. During successive Mughal emperors many celebrated gardens, mosques, and palaces were constructed. Religious intolerance and discriminatory taxation reappeared when Mughal emperor Aurangzeb ascended to the throne in 1658 CE. After his death, influence of the Mughal Empire declined. [43][50] In 1700 CE, a servant of a wealthy Kashmir merchant brought Mo-i Muqqadas (the hair of the Prophet), a relic of Muhammad , to the valley. The relic was housed in the Hazratbal Shrine on the banks of Dal Lake. [52] Nadir Shahs invasion of India in 1738 CE further drastically weakened Mughal control over the subcontinent, including Kashmir. [52] In 1753, Abdul Khan Isk Aquasi, a general in Ahmed Shah Abdali s army, invaded Kashmir and established rule of the Durrani Empire of Afghanistan. Dominance of Afghans declined after Ahmed Shah Abdalis death in 1772, but they ruled Kashmir for another 47 years. [53] [52] Princely State of Kashmir and Jammu Main articles: Kashmir and Jammu and The Royal House of Jammu and Kashmir 1909 Map of the Princely State of Kashmir and Jammu. The names of different regions, important cities, rivers, and mountains are underlined in red. Portrait of Maharaja Gulab Singh in 1847, a year after signing the Treaty of Amritsar, when he became Maharaja by purchasing the territories of Kashmir to the eastward of the river Indus and westward of the river Ravi [a] for 7.5 million rupees from the British (Artist: James Duffield Harding). In 1845, the First Anglo-Sikh War broke out, and Gulab Singh contrived to hold himself aloof till the battle of Sobraon (1846), when he appeared as a useful mediator and the trusted advisor of Sir Henry Lawrence . Two treaties were concluded. By the first the State of Lahore ( i.e. West Punjab ) handed over to the British, as equivalent for (rupees) ten million of indemnity, the hill countries between Beas and Indus; by the second [54] the British made over to Gulab Singh for ( Rupees) 7.5 million all the hilly or mountainous country situated to the east of Indus and west of Ravi (i.e. the Vale of Kashmir). [55] The Treaty of Amritsar freed Gulab Singh from obligations towards the Sikhs and made him the Maharajah of Jammu and Kashmir. [56] The Dogras loyalty came in handy to the British during the revolt of 1857 which challenged British rule in India. Dogras refused to provide sanctuary to mutineers, allowed English women and children to seek asylum in Kashmir and sent Kashmiri troops to fight on behalf of the British. British in return rewarded them by securing the succession of Dogra rule in Kashmir. [57] Soon after Gulab Singhs death in 1857, [56] his son, Ranbir Singh , added the emirates of Hunza , Gilgit and Nagar to the kingdom. [58] The Princely State of Kashmir and Jammu (as it was then called) was constituted between 1820 and 1858 and was somewhat artificial in composition and it did not develop a fully coherent identity, partly as a result of its disparate origins and partly as a result of the autocratic rule which it experienced on the fringes of Empire. [59] It combined disparate regions, religions, and ethnicities: to the east, Ladakh was ethnically and culturally Tibetan and its inhabitants practised Buddhism; to the south, Jammu had a mixed population of Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs; in the heavily populated central Kashmir valley, the population was overwhelmingly Sunni Muslim, however, there was also a small but influential Hindu minority, the Kashmiri brahmins or pandits; to the northeast, sparsely populated Baltistan had a population ethnically related to Ladakh, but which practised Shia Islam ; to the north, also sparsely populated, Gilgit Agency, was an area of diverse, mostly Shia groups; and, to the west, Punch was Muslim, but of different ethnicity than the Kashmir valle
Posted on: Thu, 30 Oct 2014 04:14:06 +0000
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