EGYPT, HISTORY OF (Αἴγυπτος, Aigyptos). A country that occupies the fertile plain of the lower Nile River in North Africa. History and Archaeology Egypt has a rich history with historical records that date back to earlier than 3000 BC. It was a center of vibrant culture and civilization, and it has provided some celebrated archaeological sites. One such site is the ancient pyramids, which were built during the Old Kingdom era. Egyptian Timeline Period Date Predynastic Period circa 5000–3200 BC Archaic Period circa 3200–2700 BC Old Kingdom circa 2700–2400 BC First Intermediate Period circa 2258–2134 BC Middle Kingdom circa 2134–1786 BC Second Intermediate Period circa 1786–1575 BC New Kingdom circa 1570–1085 BC Third Intermediate Period circa 1085–653 BC Late Period circa 672–332 BC Greek and Roman Period circa 332 BC—AD 641 Egyptian Religion. The Egyptians were a polytheistic people who worshiped a large number of gods. Many of their deities were based on cosmic entities like the sun god Re (or Ra). Others were based on animals with heads of jackals, cows, crocodiles, or other animals. A few, like Osiris or Ptah, were portrayed in human form. The Egyptians at least partially deified the pharaohs, who were viewed to be the offspring of Re, their chief god. The afterlife was a very significant aspect of Egyptian Religion, and important people were mummified to preserve their existence after death. Egyptian Literature. The influence of Egyptian literature can be seen in the Old Testament, especially within Wisdom literature. The book of Proverbs appears to have been influenced by Egyptian Wisdom texts like the Instruction of Amenemope and Instruction of Any. The book of Ecclesiastes shows some parallels to the Egyptian Dispute Between a Man and his Ba as well as The Instructions of Kagemni and Ptahhotep. Job also shares similarities to Egyptian works like The Tale of the Eloquent Peasant and A Dispute over Suicide. Additionally, there exist many Egyptian love songs similar to the biblical Song of Songs. Biblical Relevance Egypt in the Old Testament. The first mention of Egypt in the biblical narrative is in Gen 12:10–20 when Abram flees to Egypt because of a famine in Canaan. The text mentions Pharaoh, but it does not give any clues regarding the specific ruler of Egypt, making it difficult to tie this event into Egyptian chronology. The story of Joseph introduces how the Israelites came to live in Egypt. After being sold by his brothers, Joseph ends up living as a servant in Egypt (Gen 37:28–36). He eventually rises to a position of power and is able to secure a place for his family in Egypt during a widespread famine (Gen 41:1–47:12). After Joseph, the Israelites lived in Egypt for several generations. They became slaves to the Egyptians (Exod 1:7–14) before Moses led them to the promised land (Exod 12:33–42). While the precise dating of the exodus is disputed, it most likely occurred during the New Kingdom. During the period of the judges, Israel had little contact with Egypt. And after the monarchy was established, Egypt and Israel had occasional interaction. Solomon eventually made a marriage alliance with Pharaoh’s daughter (1 Kgs 3:1) and maintained a trading relationship with Egypt by importing horses and other goods from them (1 Kgs 10:28–29). Apparently the relationship between Egypt and Solomon broke down towards the end of Solomon’s reign as several of Solomon’s enemies—most notably Jeroboam, the future king of the northern kingdom—were able to take refuge in Egypt (1 Kgs 11:40). This account mentions that Jeroboam takes refuge with Shishak. Also known as Shoshenq I, Shishak ruled Egypt in the Third Intermediate Period from 945 to 914 BC. Later, he attacked and looted Rehoboam in Rehoboam’s fifth year, probably about 923 BC. During the Assyrian aggression, the northern king Hoshea reached out to the Egyptian king and stopped paying tribute to Assyria (2 Kgs 17:4). The Egyptian king is listed as So, which is most likely a reference to the city Sais, commonly abbreviated as “Sa.” When Assyria besieged Jerusalem during Hezekiah’s reign, his attack was interrupted by a conflict with the Egyptian king Tirhakah (2 Kgs 19:9). Tirhakah was most likely not king at this point, but he was the younger brother of the current pharaoh, Shabaka, who reigned until about 700 BC. Egypt and Assyria apparently joined forces as the Babylonian kingdom began to rise. Pharaoh Neco II, who reigned from 610 to 595 BC, sent an army to join Assyria in their battle against Babylon. King Josiah tried to oppose Neco and, despite Neco’s warning, was killed in battle with the Egyptian army (2 Chr 35:20–24). Neco later deposed Josiah’s son Johoahaz, establishing his brother Jehoiakim—who then paid tribute to Egypt—as king in Judah instead (2 Kgs 23:31–35). At the end of Judah’s monarchy, Zedekiah rebelled against Babylon (2 Kgs 24:20). He most likely did this by allying with Pharaoh Psammetichus II. Psammetichus, who ruled in Egypt from 595 to 589 BC, had extended Egypt’s influence into the Levant. Egyptian help failed, and Judah was exiled to Babylon. Some from Judah fled to Egypt, despite a warning by Jeremiah against doing this (Jer 42–44). Egypt in the New Testament. Egypt was not one of the dominant nations during the Graeco-Roman period and is rarely mentioned in the New Testament. The majority of the New Testament references to Egypt refer to Old Testament events, specifically the exodus (Acts 7:9–40; 13:17; Heb 3:16; 11:23–29; Jude 5). Joseph and Mary also flee to Egypt when Herod kills all the male children in Bethlehem (Matt 2:13–23). Bibliography Brown, S. Kent. “Egypt, History of.” Pages 321–74 in The Anchor Yale Bible Dictionary 2. Edited by David Noel Freedman. New York: Doubleday, 1996. Cogan, Mordechai. 1 Kings: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. Anchor Yale Bible. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2008. Cogan, Mordechai, and Hayim Tadmor. 2 Kings: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. Anchor Yale Bible. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2008. Fox, Michael V. “Love, Passion, and Perception in Israelite and Egyptian Love Poetry.” Pages 219–28 in Journal of Biblical Literature 102. Edited by Victor Paul Furnish. Decatur, Ga.: Society of Biblical Literature, 1983. Keel, Othmar. The Symbolism of the Biblical Word: Ancient Near Eastern Iconography and the Book of Psalms. Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 1997. Kitchen, K.A. “Some Egyptian Background to the Old Testament.” Pages 4–18 in Tyndale Bulletin 6. Cambridge: Tyndale House, 1960. ———. “Egypt.” Pages 251–79 in The Zondervan Encyclopedia of the Bible, Volume 2: D—G. Rev. ed. Edited by Moisés Silva and Merrill Chapin Tenney. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Zondervan, 2009. Lasor, W.S. “Egypt.” Page 29–47 in The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia 2. Rev. ed. Edited by Geoffrey W. Bromiley. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 2002. Lichtheim, Miriam. Ancient Egyptian Literature: Vols 1–3. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973–1980. Pritchard, James B., ed. The Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament. 3rd ed. with suppl. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1969. Williams, Ronald J. “Egyptian Literature.” Pages 378–99 in The Anchor Yale Bible Dictionary 2. Edited by David Noel Freedman. New York: Doubleday, 1996. MILES CUSTIS
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