Encyclopaedia of Islam, THREE Biography of the Prophet (by Wim Raven) ---------------- Article Table of Contents 1. The sources 2. The beginning of historiography 3. Ibn Isḥāq and his editors 4. Other authors 5. Genres 6. Historiography 7. Biography and Islamic law 8. Modern biographies of the Prophet Bibliography ---------------------- The biography of the prophet Muḥammad was the central theme of the sīrat al-nabī, which was not a single genre but a branch of literature in early Islam that encompassed all of early Islamic history. Both this literature and any work belonging to it were called sīra, or sometimes maghāzī (lit., “military expeditions”). At present, sīra is used for “biography” in the modern sense, that is, the story of the Prophet’s life, often including an analysis of his personality. 1. The sources The first people to occupy themselves intently with the Qurʾān, the Prophet, and early Islam in general were the storytellers (quṣṣāṣ, sing. qāṣṣ). In the Umayyad period they addressed the faithful in the mosques, recounting, among other things, the life of the Prophet. What began in the Qurʾān was continued in their stories (qiṣaṣ, sing. qiṣṣa): Muḥammad is accorded the position of the last and the best in a succession of prophets. Later on, the reputation of the storytellers deteriorated. Their inclination to exaggerate and fantasise and the Jewish material (isrāʾīlīyyāt) they included were increasingly deemed unacceptable, but their stories survived in sīra as well as in tafsīr (Qurʾānic commentary). One famous storyteller was the Yemeni Wahb b. Munabbih (c. 34–110/654–728). A third/ninth-century papyrus ascribed to him contains a large sīra fragment, which, although it may not contain Wahb’s own wording, does convey the qiṣṣa atmosphere. 2. The beginning of historiography At the request of the Umayyad court, ʿUrwa b. al-Zubayr (c. 23–93/643–712) wrote down concise information about the life of the Prophet and the period shortly after. It is a first attempt at historiography, without the edifying and entertaining character of the qiṣṣa (Görke; Görke and Schoeler). A prominent figure in the biographical literature was ʿUrwa’s most important pupil, Muḥammad b. Shihāb al-Zuhrī (d. 124/742), a collector of ḥadīth and stories. His works may have been no more than notebooks, but he did provide the biography with the beginnings of a structure. His narratives, which are often in the form of ḥadīths, are found in all biographical compilations, especially in the collections of Maʿmar b. Rāshid and Ibn Isḥāq (see below). Mūsā b. ʿUqba al-Asadī (c. 55–141/675–758) was a Medinan scholar and historian who collected and promulgated material on the Prophet’s life. No book of his is extant, but there are collections of fragments. 3. Ibn Isḥāq and his editors Pivotal in the biographical literature is Muḥammad b. Isḥāq (c. 85–150/704–767; Schoeler, Charakter, 37–51). After having left his native Medina for Iraq, he was asked by the caliph al-Manṣūr (r. 136–58/754–75) to write an all-encompassing history. Ibn Isḥāq’s magnum opus comprised three volumes. The first, al-Mubtadaʾ (“[In] the beginning”) dealt with the creation of the world and the pre-Islamic period; the second, al-Baʿth (“The mission”), treats the life of the Prophet up to his emigration to Medina; and the third, al-Maghāzī (“Expeditions and battles”), describes his activities in Medina. Ibn Ishāq did not merely collect materials; he composed a structured work, arranged sometimes chronologically and sometimes by subject matter. The best known of Ibn Isḥāq’s redactors is ʿAbd al-Malik b. Hishām (d. c.215/830, in Egypt), whose selections from Ibn Isḥāq’s work constituted the first sīra text to be transmitted in a fixed form. He explained difficult words and expressions in notes of his own and added narratives, poetry, and genealogical data. Ibn Hishām carefully maintained the theological purity of the texts he selected and omitted passages that he found offensive. A related version is transmitted by al-Ṭabarī (d. 310/922) in his Taʾrīkh (“The history of messengers and kings”), which includes two striking stories that Ibn Hishām did not include, one about Muḥammad’s intended suicide (1:1147) and the other about the “satanic verses” (1:1192–6). Much of Ibn Isḥāq’s sīra material is also found in al-Ṭabarī’s Tafsīr. Less known is Aḥmad b. ʿAbd al-Jabbār al-ʿUṭāridī’s (177–272/794–886) edition of a part of Ibn Ishāq’s work, based on the transmission of the latter’s pupil Yūnus b. Bukayr (d. 199/815). Yūnus transmitted some material that Ibn Hishām would have frowned upon. 4. Other authors A limited collection was composed by the Yemeni Maʿmar b. Rāshid (96–154/714–770), who transmitted mainly from al-Zuhrī. Muḥammad b. ʿUmar al-Wāqidī’s (130–207/747–822) only extant work, al-Maghāzī, is an important source on the expeditions and battles of the Prophet and displays a great interest in chronology. Al-Wāqidī typically reshaped and combined various traditions and gave them one chain of transmission. The work Akhbār al-nabī, by Muḥammad b. Saʿd (168–230/784–845) is, after Ibn Isḥāq’s, the first extant full biography of the Prophet. A later redactor integrated this book into Ibn Saʿd’s Kitāb al-ṭabaqāt al-kabīr. Because he was al-Wāqidī’s secretary, Ibn Saʿd is an important source for the latter’s lost works. His Ṭabaqāt is a most important source for the lives of the Companions of the Prophet. Several ḥadīth collections, such as those of Ibn Abī Shayba (d. 235–849, Muṣannaf, 14:283–601), and al-Bukhārī (d. 256/870), have a section on the life of the Prophet. Biographical fragments are found throughout the ḥadīth collections. Since ḥadīth literature does not in principle narrate but instead focuses on what is lawful and ethical, there is often an apparent re- or decontextualisation of the original texts. Among the later authors, the most interesting are al-Suhaylī (d. 581/1185), who wrote a commentary on the sīra of Ibn Hishām, and his critic Mughulṭāy (d. 689/1290). Other compilers are Ibn Sayyid al-Nās (d. 734/1333); Ibn Kathīr (d. 774/1373, who became popular in the twentieth century, author of al-Bidāya wa-l-nihāya); Muḥammad b. Yūsuf al-Ṣāliḥī (d. 942/1536); and Nūr al-Dīn al-Ḥalabī (975–1044/1567–1635). (For a survey of these works see Kister, Sīrah, 366–7.) 5. Genres The classical biographical texts bring together very heterogeneous genres and intentions, as enumerated in the following survey (which is not exhaustive). 5.1. Stories about military expeditions (maghāzī) that the Prophet organised or in which he participated. These vary in scope from the assassination of a single person, through small raids, to large campaigns (e.g., the battles of Badr, in 2/624, Uḥud, in 3/625, and Ḥunayn, in 8/630). The main sources are Ibn Isḥāq and al-Wāqidī. (For a survey, see Watt, Muḥammad in Medina, 339–43.) They form a continuation of the secular accounts of ayyām al-ʿarab (battle days of the pre-Islamic Arabs), with raids, battles, challenges, examples of bravery, exchanges of poetry, and single combats. Islamic elements include items such as the intervention of angels in battle and the linking of historical events with Qurʾānic passages (Raven 39, 42). 5.2. Accounts of the merits and faults of clans and individual Companions (aṣḥāb) of the Prophet. The attitudes towards individual companions sometimes differ considerably among the various texts. The deeds of the Companions also found their way into ḥadīth collections, in chapters entitled faḍāʾil or manāqib al-aṣḥāb, and into separate works by historians such as Ibn Saʿd, Ibn ʿAbd al-Barr (368–463/978–1070), Ibn al-Athīr (555–630/1160–1233), Ibn Ḥajar al-ʿAsqalānī (773–852/1372–1449), and others. 5.3. Qurʾānic exegesis (tafsīr). Certain biographical texts originate from an exegetical impulse. Almost all types of exegesis occur (Raven 35–40), two of which are particularly relevant here: 5.3.1. Accounts of “occasions of revelation” (asbāb al-nuzūl) for Qurʾānic passages. These accounts either have an exegetical purport or intend to “historicise” the Qurʾān (Rippin, Occasions). 5.3.2. Narrative expansion. “Occasion” stories and other accounts are sometimes built upon a Qurʾānic passage, in a manner similar to a Jewish Midrash. The episode of the satanic verses (al-Ṭabarī, Taʾrīkh 1:1192–4), for example, is based on Q 22:52: Satan casts something on the tongue of a prophet, and God abrogates it and establishes His verses. 5.4. Other biographical texts originated in a nonscriptural impulse, and Qurʾānic words or passages were added to them (Qurʾānisation). This was done for various reasons: in order to edify; to create an elevated atmosphere; to lend weight to a statement or argument; or to replace with poetry or allusions biblical narratives that were contained an earlier stage of the text had contained. 5.5. Prophetic legend. As the Qurʾān had done before, the biography aims at establishing the place of Muḥammad among the prophets and that of Islam among the other religions. The numerous stories that dwell on the characteristics of prophethood are responses to the narrative repertoire of Judaism, Christianity, and even Manichaeism (Newby, 1–32; cf. Andræ). Many stories about the earlier prophets were collected in Ibn Isḥāq’s Kitāb al-mubtadaʾ and are partially preserved in al-Ṭabarī’s Taʾrīkh (1:86–795, trans. in Newby). Some examples: Muḥammad’s mother had an exceptional pregnancy, during which she could see the castles of Boṣrā by the light that emanated from her (Ibn Isḥāq/Ibn Hishām, 102). Muḥammad’s initial flinching from recitation when Gabriel brought him the revelation (Ibn Isḥāq/Ibn Hishām, 152) has precedents in the reluctance of several other prophets (Exodus 3:11–4:13, Jeremiah 1:6; Jonah 1:2–3; and Q 37:140). The sīra sometimes recapitulates prophetic traits in general statements, which are exemplified by Muḥammad: there is no prophet who has not shepherded a flock (Ibn Isḥāq/Ibn Hishām, 106; cf. Q 28:22–8; 1 Samuel 17:15; John 10:11, 14); a prophet does not die without being given the choice (Ibn Isḥāq/Ibn Hishām, 1008); the eyes of prophets sleep while their hearts are awake (Ibn Isḥāq/Ibn Hishām 266; Ibn Saʿd, Ṭabaqāt 1/i, 113). The sīra literature contains stories about miracles wrought by God through His Prophet, or by the Prophet himself, which serve as proof of his prophethood, often in comparison to the actions of previous prophets. Miracles that are alluded to in the Qurʾān, such as the intervention of angels in the battles of Badr and Ḥunayn, are elaborated in the sīra. Ibn Saʿd collected them in a separate chapter of his Ṭabaqāt (1/i, 96–135; trans. i, 170–219); al-Bukhārī also has a small collection (Kitāb al-Manāqib, bāb 25). These stories later developed into a distinct genre (dalāʾil al-nubuwwa; cf. Kister, Sīrah, 355). 5.6. Written documents, or texts presenting themselves as such, including: 5.6.1. Letters from the Prophet to governors, Arabian tribes, foreign rulers, and others (Ibn Isḥāq/Ibn Hishām, passim; al-Ṭabarī, Taʾrīkh, passim; Ibn Saʿd, Ṭabaqāt, 1/ii 15–38, trans. i, 304–45; Ibn Abī Shayba, nos. 18475–86). 5.6.2. Treaties, such as that of al-Ḥudaybiyya (Ibn Isḥāq/Ibn Hishām, 747–8). Treaties with tribes are often embodied in letters. The most important treaty is the “Document (kitāb) of Medina” (for the text, see, e.g., Ibn Isḥāq/Ibn Hishām 341–4), an agreement between “Muḥammad the Prophet” and “the believers and Muslims of Quraysh and Yathrib, and those who follow them, join them, and strive alongside them,” including Jewish groups, but not Naḍīr, Qurayẓa, and Qaynuqāʾ, the “Jewish tribes” that are mentioned elsewhere in the biography (Humphreys, 92–8; Rubin, Constitution; Schöller, 171–214). 5.6.3. Lists of the first converts, of the Emigrants and Helpers, of participants in battles or negotiations, receivers of booty, representatives of tribes, etc., that may originate in government registers (dīwān; cf. Puin), as well as purely historiographic lists of the Prophet’s military actions. The greatest list-makers were al-Wāqidī and Ibn Saʿd. 5.7. Speeches and sermons by the Prophet, such as his first addresses in Medina and his speech at the farewell pilgrimage (Ibn Isḥāq/Ibn Hishām, 340–1, 968–9, respectively). 5.8. Poetry. The storytellers of pre-Islamic times had combined prose with poetry in their stories, and the biographical narrators continued this tradition. In many cases, the pieces of poetry are not insertions that could be excised without damaging the story or the report but indispensable constituents of it (Wansbrough, 38–9). Larger pieces of poetry occur as well, such as those by Kaʿb b. Zuhayr, a contemporary of the Prophet, and Ḥassān b. Thābit (d. c.40/659). The story of the Prophet’s approval of a long poem by Kaʿb (Ibn Isḥāq/Ibn Hishām 887–92; Zwettler) was a means of legitimising a new, Islamic poetry, which avoided intertribal hostility, praised the Prophet, and emphasised his mission and his spiritual qualities and those of his new religion. The Qurʾānic verdict on poetry (Q 26:224–6; 52:29–30) resulted in a decreasing use of poetry in the sīra literature through the years. Ibn Hishām tends to place all occasional poetry referring to a certain event together (e.g., after his accounts of the larger battles), possibly because the reconstitution and Qurʾānisation of these long narratives made it impossible to keep the verses in their original places. 6. Historiography Sīra materials as a whole are so heterogeneous that a coherent image of the Prophet cannot be reconstructed from them. Can any of them be used in any way for a historically reliable biography of Muḥammad or for the historiography of early Islam? The question is a typically orientalist one: Nineteenth-century scholars such as Ernest Renan (1823–93; “Islam was born in the full light of history” (Ernest Renan, Études d’histoire religieuse (Paris 18636), 220)), Julius Wellhausen (1844–1918), and Ignaz Goldziher (1850–1921) were confident that they could be. They eliminated many texts as untrustworthy but believed that it was possible to reconstruct the historical past “as it had really been.” This belief was shaken by the first wave of skepticism, whose main representatives were Leone Caetani (1869–1935) and Henri Lammens (1862–1937). By juxtaposing all available sources in his Annali, Caetani demonstrated that they often contradicted one another. Lammens considered the whole biography dependent on the Qurʾān and therefore historically unreliable. After the First World War skepticism subsided and the quest for the historical truth was resumed. Scholarly biographies were written, the apogee of which was the impressive work by W. Montgomery Watt (Mecca; Medina). A second wave of skepticism arrived in the 1970s. John Wansbrough applied “source criticism” to sīra texts, as had been done to the Bible, analysing the various literary genres with their functions and purposes. Patricia Crone and Michael Cook continued the literary approach, bringing in the hitherto neglected extra-Islamic sources, with a keen eye for the material, economic, and geographical realities of the Arabian lands. Opinions among non-Muslim scholars diverge strongly. On one hand, there is a clear tendency to return to tradition. Nostalgia for a true historical biography of the Prophet can be seen in Gregor Schoeler’s Charakter und Authentie der muslimischen Überlieferung über das Leben Mohammeds and Harald Motzki’s The murder of Ibn Abī l-Ḥuqayq. Francis Peters demonstrates that he is well aware of the nature of the sources, but at the same time, he writes a biography. The erstwhile skeptical Patricia Crone has suggested that we know a good deal about Muḥammad and can learn more by further investigation. Tilman Nagels voluminous scholarly biography reads as if skepticism had never existed. Other scholars have tried to rewrite early Islamic history completely and raise doubts about the very existence of Muḥammad or even claim that his name is actually an adjective, also applied to Jesus (Nevo and Koren; Ohlig and Puin; Luxenberg in Ohlig and Puin, 124–47; Jansen). A post-skeptical indifference towards the historicity of the biography is found in Rubin (Eye) and Schöller. Whatever one’s point of view, the recent insight into the literary nature of the biographical texts should not be jettisoned. Many of them belong to literary genres with conventions of their own, a degree of fictionality, and considerable intertextuality. The greater the intertextuality of an account, the less suitable the source is for historiography. Texts constructed from a biblical or Qurʾānic text or following the pattern of a legend, and pieces of salvation history can be used for the history of ideas at their time of origin but not for that of the events represented in the texts. One should also bear in mind that hardly any biographical text can be dated back to the first century of Islam, that the various versions of a text often show discrepancies, and that the later the sources are, the more they claim to know about the Prophet. 7. Biography and Islamic law From the viewpoint of Islamic law, not only ḥadīth but also the biography literature contain the sunna of the Prophet, although ḥadīth is considered a superior source, because it assures authentication through chains of transmitters (isnād). To what extent the biography can be used in legal argumentation and in the construction of rules of law is sometimes disputed. A restrictive view is taken by Ibn Taymiyya (661–728/1263–1328), who holds that much of the biographical material should not be used in legal argument, unless it is transmitted by multiple chains and the subject matter is of great importance (Schöller 62–4). 8. Modern biographies of the Prophet Over the centuries, Muslims continued writing biographies of the Prophet, but increasing European influence at the end of the nineteenth century led to the gradual introduction of modern-style literary biographies into the Islamic world. Moreover, historical criticism in Europe, which often struck a patronising or even resentful note towards Islamic beliefs, made Muslims feel the need to rewrite the biography of the Prophet in a more appropriate, respectful manner. A wealth of modern works appeared, among which the most scholarly are perhaps those by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan (1817–98), Muhammad Hamidullah (1908–2002), Martin Lings (1909–2005), Abdul Hameed Siddiqui, and Hishām Juʿayṭ (b. 1935). But there are also literary works that rewrite or digest the biography, by authors such as Muḥammad Ḥusayn Haykal (1888–1956), Ṭāhā Ḥusayn (1889–1973), Tawfīq al-Ḥakīm (1898–1987), ʿAbbās Maḥmūd al-ʿAqqād (1889–1964), and Najīb Maḥfūz (1911–2006), as well as innumerable popular and edifying works. They often borrow the historiographic framework from European scholarly works, whereas they follow modern-style literary biographies in their reshaping of the fragmentary ancient texts into longer, coherent narratives and in their tendency to outline and assess the Prophet’s character. With the exception, perhaps, of Maḥfūẓ, they omit everything that might raise doubt or cause negative feelings, thus leaving little room for the Prophet’s human—even all too human—traits, of which the earliest sources had had no fear. 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